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By FREDERICK H. WINES
THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO., NEW YORK
IRRIGATION
IN THE UNITED STATES
BY
FREDERICK HAYNES NEWELL
HYDRAULIC ENGINEER AND CHIEF OF THE HYDROGRAPHIC BRANCH
OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY; CHIEF
ENGINEER OF THE RECLAMATION SERVICE
The forest and water problems are perhaps the most vital
Internal questions of the United States.
ROOSEVELT.
REVISED EDITION
NEW YORK
THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO.
PUBLISHERS
THIRD EDITION.
COPYRIGHT, 1902 AND 1906,
BY THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO.
se
JOHN WESLEY POWELL
THE PIONEER IN SCIENTIFIC CONQUEST OF THE ARID
LANDS OF THE NATIONAL DOMAIN
There is no one question now before the people of the
United States of greater importance than the conservation
of the water supply and the reclamation of the arid lands
of the West, and their settlement by men who will actu-
ally build homes and create communities.
ETHAN ALLEN HITCHCOCK.
Throughout our history the success of the home-maker
has been but another name for the upbuilding of the
nation.
THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
Stability of national character goes with foothold on
the soil.
DAVID STARR JORDAN.
PREFACE.
IRRIGATION as it is related to the utilization of
some of the great untouched resources of the
United States is here discussed, and especial at-
tention is devoted to the opportunities for making
homes upon the vast extent of vacant public lands
now waste and desolate. A somewhat elementary
and popular description of irrigation and of the
devices for obtaining and distributing water is
given, including details of interest to persons who
are beginning to give attention to the subject.
More space is devoted to the crude, but effective,
home-made contrivances than to the elaborate or
expensive machinery purchased from manufac-
turers, for the success of irrigation depends most
largely upon the rough-and-ready ingenuity of the
first settlers in a new country in adapting their
ways to the environment.
The writer has been continuously engaged for
the last twelve years in conducting investigations
of the extent to which the arid regions can be
reclaimed by irrigation, ascertaining the cost and
capacity of reservoirs, measuring the flow of rivers
useful for power, irrigation, and other industrial
iv PREFACE.
purposes, and mapping the artesian or under-
ground waters. The attempt is here made to
bring together, in as non-technical a manner as
possible, the results of this study and experience.
Acknowledgment is due to the Director of the
United States Geological Survey, Hon. Charles D.
Walcott, for his interest in the matter and for per-
mission to use illustrations arid data from the files
of the office, and to numerous friends and co-
workers in the Survey who have generously aided
in many ways. Especial recognition should be
given to Major John Wesley Powell, the former
Director, to whose foresight and energy is due the
inauguration, in 1888, of the investigation by the
Geological Survey of the extent to which the arid
lands can be reclaimed by irrigation.
Thanks for material and assistance are given to
Mr. Herbert M. Wilson, the author of the "Manual
of Irrigation Engineering," of "Irrigation in India,"
etc. ; to Mr. Arthur P. Davis, hydrographer for the
Geological Survey and also for the Nicaragua and
Isthmian Canal Commissions ; to Mr. J. B. Lippin-
cott and to Mr. A. L. Fellows, irrigation experts
respectively for California and Colorado ; to Mr.
George H. Maxwell, of The National Irrigation
Association ; to Professor F. H. King, author of
"Irrigation and Drainage"; to Mr. James D.
Schuyler, author of " Reservoirs for Irrigation " ;
and to various writers on water supply and arte-
sian conditions, particularly to Professor Israel C.
PREFACE. v
Russell, Mr. N. H. Darton, Professor T. C. Cham-
berlin, Professor Samuel Fortier, Professor E. C.
Murphy, Mr. Frank Leverett, Professor E. H.
Barbour, Professor Alfred C. Lane, Professor J. E.
Todd, Professor Thomas U. Taylor, and Mr. George
Otis Smith, all being connected to a greater or
less degree with the investigation of the water
resources of the United States.
Mention should also be made of various books
which have been consulted : " The Conquest of
Arid America," by William E. Smythe ; " Irriga-
tion Farming," by Lute Wilcox ; "The Nation as
a Landowner," by J. D. Whelpley, and pamphlets
and reports by C. E. Grunsky, Marsden Manson,
Elwood Mead, Clarence T. Johnston, E. J. Wick-
son, B. C. Buffum, J. C. Ulrich, R. H. Forbes,
E. B. Voorhees, and others.
The literature on irrigation is now so extensive
that few persons can claim to have more than a
general knowledge of it. Free use has been made
of all available sources of information, but no
attempt has been made to assign credit for any
particular item of information or illustration.
F. H. N.
January, 1902.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
SINCE the time of the preparation of this book
in the early spring of 1902, notable changes have
taken place in the attitude of the public toward
irrigation, and more rapid advances have been
made in actual development than in the decade
preceding. As a result of the efforts of President
Roosevelt and of the continuous agitation of the
subject by advocates of national control, Congress
took up what was originally known as the New-
lands Bill, and discussed, amended, and passed this
during the spring of 1902. The measure, now
known as the Reclamation Act, became a law on
June 17, 1902. It is in many ways one of the
most noteworthy pieces of legislation enacted by
Congress in recent years. New principles are
involved in national development, and the gov-
ernment has been committed to certain lines of
internal improvements.
The President in his first message to Congress,
delivered on December 3, 1901, struck the keynote
(as shown on pages 393 to 396 in the latter part
of this book). The friends of national irrigation
were not slow in responding. In particular, great
credit is due to the energy displayed by the
National Irrigation Association, which, under the
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. vii
leadership of Mr. George H. Maxwell, and with
financial' assistance given freely by Western rail-
roads and Eastern manufacturing corporations,
carried on a -vigorous campaign of education.
The result of these efforts was shown in the large
support of the Reclamation Act by the rank and
file of Congress against the advice and even oppo-
sition of the leaders of both the great political
parties.
The law was immediately put into effect, and the
Reclamation Service created under Mr. Charles D.
Walcott, Director of the Geological Survey, known
not only for his scientific work, but also as a suc-
cessful organizer and business man. Under his
leadership the operations have been pushed for-
ward with energy. In the course of a little over
three years most of ^the feasible projects of rec-
lamation in the arid regions have been studied,
work begun upon many of these, and the future
policy placed upon a firm basis. In the meantime,
there has been a general agitation as to the best
use of the remaining public domain.
President Roosevelt, on October 22, 1903, ap-
pointed a commission to report on the condition,
operation, and effect of the present land laws, and
to recommend such changes as are needed to effect
the largest practicable disposition of the public
lands to actual settlers who will build permanent
homes upon them, and to secure in permanence
the fullest and most effective use of the resources
viii PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
of the public lands. This commission consists
of Governor W. A. Richards, Commissioner of the
General Land Office, Gifford Pinchot, Forester,
head of the Forest Service, and F. H. Newell,
Chief Engineer of the Reclamation Service.
The commission made a first partial report on
March 7, 1904, and a second report on February
J3> 1905. These reports called attention to the
fact that the present land laws are not suited
to meet the conditions of the remaining public
domain, and that their operation has not tended
to promote home-making and the largest develop-
ment of the country. On the contrary, they have
been such as to lead to land monopoly and the
restraint of settlement of agricultural lands by the
most desirable class of citizens ; namely, those who
will live upon them, cultivate them, and become
owners of small, well-cultivated tracts.
Out of this activity of agencies of the general
government, there is growing a larger and better
conception of the opportunities of the West, and of
the need of broad control of the forests and of the
•
water. It is believed that with this larger knowl-
edge there will be a better grasp by the public
of the duties of citizenship in this respect, and a
more effective administration on the part of all
responsible officers.
F. H. N.
January, 1906.
CONTENTS.
PREFACE
CHAPTER I.
RECLAMATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS I
CHAPTER II.
THE ARID REGIONS 13
Precipitation 1 6
Forests 27
Grazing Lands 36
Cultivated Lands . . . . . . . • 49
CHAPTER III.
SURFACE WATERS 57
Periodic Fluctuation ...... t • 62
Seepage 72
Importance of Stream Measurements .... 79
Methods of Stream Measurement 82
Floats 86
Current Meters 89
Weirs 97
ix
x CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
PAGE
CONVEYING AND DIVIDING STREAM WATERS . . . 102
Diversion from the Stream 102
Distribution of Plow ....... 108
Dams and Head Gates . . . . . . -115
Measuring Devices or Modules 120
Flumes and Wooden Pipes . . . . . .134
Tunnels 138
Lining of Canals '. . 139
Erosion and Sedimentation in Canals . . . .141
CHAPTER V.
RESERVOIRS .149
Requirements for Water Storage . „ . „ .150
Keeping Reservoirs Clean . . . . . .156
Masonry Dams . .159
Rock-filled Dams 162
Earth Dams 166
Hydraulic Dams 170
Stored Waters 173
CHAPTER VI.
METHODS OF IRRIGATION .179
Flooding in Checks . . . . . • . 185
Watering by Furrows . . . . . . 193
Wild Flooding 199
Orchards and Vineyards ....... 202
Subirrigation ......... 207
Amount of Water applied . . . . . .212
Arrangement of Irrigated Farm . . 220
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER VII.
PAGE
UNDERGROUND WATERS 225
Return Waters 226
Underflow 229
Ordinary Wells . . . . . . « . 241
Artesian Wells . . 246
CHAPTER VIII.
PUMPING WATER 254
Pumping by Hand or Animal Power .... 255
Use of Water-wheels 258
Windmills 265
Steam and Gasolene ....... 270
CHAPTER IX.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION . . 272
Sewage Irrigation ........ 275
Alkali 281
CHAPTER X.
IRRIGATION LAW .* 286
CHAPTER XI.
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE ARID REGIONS . . 299
Arizona .......... 304
California . . . . . . . . .. 312
Colorado ......... 329
Idaho . 333
xii CONTENTS.
PAGE
Montana 338
Nevada 341
New Mexico 346
Oregon 350
Utah . 353
Washington . . 358
Wyoming 361
CHAPTER XII.
STATES OF THE SEMIARID REGION . . . . 364
Fluctuations in Water Supply 364
Artesian and Deep Wells 373
North Dakota and South Dakota 376
Nebraska . 377
Kansas , 379
Oklahoma and Texas 380
CHAPTER XIII.
HUMID REGIONS 383
CHAPTER XIV.
CONCLUSION „ 393
CHAPTER ^XV.
RECLAMATION ACT , . 407
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES.
FACING PAGE
I. The isolated home on the wind-swept unirrigated
plain 2
II. The home made possible by irrigation ... 6
III. Results of attempts to make homes on the public
lands without first providing methods of irrigation 14
IV. Results attained by irrigation 22
V. A, Forests partly destroyed. B, Cultivated fields re-
ceiving water from the partly forested mountains . * 30
VI. A, Young forest growth succeeding a fire. B, Sheep
grazing in the forests 44
VII. Cattle on the open range 56
VIII. A flood in Salt River, Arizona . . . .62
IX. A, Seepage water appearing on land formerly dry
near Rincon, California. B, Dredge cutting canal
to receive seepage water . . . . . 76
X. A, Electric current meter, conducting cord, and
battery. B, Method of using electric current
meter from suspended car 90
XI. A, Supports for suspended car. B, Method of using
meter from boat 94
XII. Ay Weir on Genesee River, New York. B, Weir
on Cottonwood Creek, Utah .... 98
XIII. A, Digging a ditch from a river. B, The finished
ditch . . . . 106
XIV. Dredge cutting large canal of Central Irrigation
District, California no
XV. A, Head gates of canal. B, Timber regulator . 114
XVI. A, Regulating or measuring device near head of
canal. B, Distribution box on farmer's lateral . 120
xiii
XIV
ILLUSTRATIONS.
A, Flume on rocky hillside,
earth in a sidehill cut
FACING PAGE
B, Flume across
. 130
132
134
136
138
142
146
'54
XVII.
XVIII. Raising the trestles for a large flume
XIX. Semicircular wooden flume ....
XX. A, Pipe under i6o-foot head, Santa Ana Canal,
California. B, Old flume and redwood pipe
replacing it, Redlands Canal, California .
XXI. A, Tunnel on Turlock Canal, California. B, Tun-
nel in earth on Crocker-Huffman Canal, Cali-
fornia ........
XXII. A, Semicircular flume in Santa Ana Canal, Cali-
fornia. B, Cement lining of Santa Ana Canal,
California
XXIII. A, Drop in an Arizona canal. B, Check weir
and drop
XXIV. Sweetwater Dam near San Diego, California
XXV. A, Lagrange 'Dam, nearly completed. B, La-
grange Dam with flood passing over crest and
spillways 158
XXVI. A, Dam at Austin, Texas, looking toward power
house. By Portions of Austin Dam immedi-
ately after failure 162
XXVII. A, Otay Dam, California, showing method of
protecting steel plates. B, Construction of
timber dam at Blue Lakes, California
XXVIII. A, Building dam by hydraulic process at Santa
Fe, New Mexico, showing hydraulic giant in
use. B, Building dam by hydraulic process at
Santa Fe, New Mexico, showing outlet pipe .
XXIX. Excavating deep cut for canal by hydraulic
process
XXX. Skyline Canal diverting water across the moun-
tains
XXXI. A, Field prepared in rectangular checks. B, Ir-
rigation by checks in San Joaquin Valley,
California
1 66
170
172
176
1 88
ILLUSTRATIONS.
xv
FACING PAGE
XXXII. A, Canvas dam in temporary ditch. B, Irrigat-
ing a young alfalfa field 194
XXXIII. Furrow irrigation of grove 198
XXXIV. A, Furrow irrigation of vines. B, Furrow irri-
gation of orchard 202
XXXV. Cement-lined distributing ditch .... 206
XXXVI. Cultivation after irrigation . . . . .216
XXXVII. A, Weir measurements of Los Angeles River in
San Fernando Valley, California. B, Results
of irrigation from rivers of Southern California 236
XXXVIII. A, Artesian well in Arizona. B, Artesian well
in Kansas 246
. XXXIX. Outfit for drilling deep artesian wells . . .248
XL. Well at Woonsocket, South Dakota, throwing a
three-inch stream to a height of ninety-seven
feet 252
XLI. Current wheels lifting water .... 260
XLII. A, Jumbo type of home-made windmills.
B, Battle-axe type of home-made windmills . 266
XLIII. Windmill pumping into sod-lined reservoir . 270
XLIV. The desert reclaimed 274
XLV. Sewage irrigation at Plainfield, New Jersey . 278
XLVI. A, Sewage irrigation at Phoenix, Arizona.
B, Sewage irrigation in England . . . 282
XLVII. Irrigated vineyard near Phoenix, Arizona . . 304
XLVIII. Drying apricots 310
XLIX. A, Irrigation of vineyard in San Joaquin Valley,
California. B, Irrigation of orchard in San
Joaquin Valley, California .... 320
L. Redwood stave pipe, fifty-two inches in diameter,
crossing Warmsprings Canyon, near Redlands,
California 326
LI. Irrigating a wheat field in Colorado . . . 332
LII. A, Twin Falls, Snake River, Idaho. B, Con-
structing a canal by means of a grader . . 334
LIII. Wooden pipe line on Phyllis Canal, Idaho ' . 336
LIV. Canyon of Snake River above Lewiston, Idaho . 338
XVI
ILLUSTRATIONS.
FACING PAGE
LV. Tunnel of Bear River Canal, Utah . . -354
LVI. Wheat-fields of Washington . . . . 358
LVII. A, Sunnyside Canal, Washington. B, Fruit
orchard, Yakima Valley, Washington . . 362
LVIII. A, Irrigation in South Dakota by use of water
from an artesian well. B, Stock-watering plant
on.upland 370
LIX. A, Settler trying to cultivate without irrigation,
By Water for irrigation provided by windmill . 374
LX. A, Looking down North Platte River from the
Nebraska-Wyoming line. B, Head gates of
Farmers and Merchants Irrigation Company
on Platte River, near Cozad, Nebraska . . 378
LXI. Dutch windmill at Lawrence, Kansas . . 382
LXII. A, Clean sweep of the prairie fire. B, The car-
pet of grass on the high plains . . . 386
LXIII. Head of Gunnison River tunnel . . . . 410
LXIV. Gunnison tunnel, Colorado . . . .412
LXV. Site of Pathfinder dam, Wyoming . . . 4H
LXVI. Dam in Truckee River, Nevada . . . 4l6
LXVII. Cement-lined canal, Nevada . . . .418
LXVIII. Shoshone dam site, Wyoming .... 420
FIGURES.
Map of vacant public lands
2. Map of humid, semiarid, and arid regions of the United
States
3. Map of humid and arid regions of the world .
4. Mean monthly precipitation at twelve localities in western
United States
5. Types of monthly distribution of precipitation .
6. Annual precipitation at three points in arid regions
7. Map of mean annual rainfall . . . . . '
8. Map of m^an annual run-off ......
9. Forests and woodlands of the West ....
IO. Relative position of forest and Indian reservations .
PAGE
5
18
20
22
24
25
32
34
ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii
11. Approximate location and extent of the open range . 39
12. Map of dry farming 50
13. Comparison of cultivable and cultivated areas in belt of
states 52
14. Map of irrigated and irrigable lands - . . . -54
15. Larger river systems of the United States 60
1 6. Diagram of daily discharge of Rio Grande at Embudo,
New Mexico, for 1896, 1897, and 1898 ... 65
17. Diagram of daily discharge of Susquehanna River at
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, for 1896, 1897, and 1898 . 68
1 8. Double or submerged floats 88
19. Method of measuring river from car suspended from a
steel cable 94
20. Section of flume, illustrating methods of measurement . 96
21. Ordinary weir in a small stream 99
22. Diagram showing method of diverting a canal from a
river 104
23. Levelling device for laying out ditches . . . .106
24. Map of ditches along a stream . . . . .113
25. Plan of diversion works in river . . . . . 116
26. Brush dams of canals heading near each other . . 117
27. Plan of dam and regulator 118
28. Details of small head gate . . . . . .119
29. Plan of device for dividing water 121
30. Flume for measuring miner's inches . . . .125
31. Foote measuring box 127
32. Methods of measuring miner's inch in ditch . . .128
33. Rectangular weir 131
34. Trapezoidal or Cippoletti weir 132
35. Trapezoidal weir with self-recording device . . . 133
36. Vertical section of trestle and flume . . . . 135
37. Siphon passage for canal 137
38. Section of cement-lined ditch with stop gate . . .140
39. Cross-section of canal partly filled with sediment . . 144
40. Map of a reservoir 153
41. Section of masonry dam at La Grange, California . .160
42. Plan of dam at La Grange, California .... 161
xviii ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
43. Portion of earth reservoir showing outlet . •. .168
44. Portion of earth reservoir showing inlet . . . .169
45. Section of reservoir bank showing outlet . . . 169
46. Section of small distributing ditch 183
47. Section of small raised ditch 183
48. Sections and elevation of small flumes . . . .184
49. Box for taking water from main ditch . . . .184
50. Details of construction of box for distributing water . 186
51. Portion of field, divided by rectangular levees . . .187
52. Application of water by the block system . . . 188
53. Flooding in rectangular checks 190
54. Plan of irrigated garden divided into compartments or
checks 191
55. Checks on sloping land 193
56. Application of water by furrows 195
57. Water turned from furrow by a canvas dam . . . 196
58. Canvas dam 197
59. Metal tappoons . . .198
60. Wooden tappoon provided with outlets . . . .198
61. Metal tappoon with measuring gate . . . .198
62. Plan of wild flooding . 200
63. Plan of distributing water on rolling lands . . . 201
64. Box for distributing water in an orchard .... 202
65. Outlet from side of small flume 203
66. Orchard irrigation by pools ...... 204
67. Irrigation on slope with stepped flume .... 205
68. Pipes and hydrant for distributing water in an orchard . 208
69. Plan of subirrigating system 209
70. Section of small galvanized sheet-iron pipe . . . 210
71 Plan of an irrigated farm 221
72. Rise of ground water following' irrigation . . . 223
73. Diagram illustrating inflow and outflow of Ogden Valley,
Utah . . 228
74. Dam across a rocky canyon, cutting off the underflow . 234
75. Ordinary well curbing and windlass .... 244
76. Diagram illustrating evils of insufficient casing . . 245
77. Section of one side of an artesian basin .... 247
ILLUSTRATIONS. xix
78. Section illustrating the thinning out of a porous water-
bearing bed ........ 248
79. Geologic section from the Black Hills east across South
Dakota (western half) ...... 250
80. Geologic section from the Black Hills east across South
Dakota (eastern half) 251
81. The doon, or tilting trough ...... 254
82. Series of shadoofs as used in Egypt . . . . 255
83. A mot, operated by oxen ...... 256
84. Horse-power for lifting water . ..... 257
85. Current wheel lifting water 258
86. Impulse water-wheel 260
87. Windmills pumping into earth reservoir .... 268
88. Channels and gates for sewage irrigation . . . 280
89. United States compared with foreign countries . . 301
90. Western United States compared with foreign countries . 303
91. California compared with the Atlantic States lying in the
same latitude 314
92. California compared with Old World countries lying in
the same latitude. ....... 315
93. Canal system from Kern River, California . . . 320
94. Ideal section of Columbia River lava . . . .361
IRRIGATION.
CHAPTER I.
RECLAMATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.
HOME-MAKING is the aim of this book ; the recla-
mation of places now waste and desolate and the
creation there of fruitful farms, each tilled by its
owner, is its object. The attainment of this end
is sought by directing attention to the resources
of our great unutilized domain, in the hope that,
through a more complete knowledge of these and
the methods of their utilization, vigorous and wise
action may supersede the present lax and improvi-
dent policy.
One-third of the whole United States, exclusive
of Alaska and outlying possessions, consists of
vacant public land. One of the greatest economic
questions before our people is that relating to the
utilization of this vast area, much of which has a
rich soil and under good management is capable of
sustaining a large population ; while, if neglected,
there will continue to be only widely separated
ranches and nomadic herdsmen. As the control
of the vacant public lands is now tending, these
areas are not being made available for the crea-
tion of the largest number of homes.
2 IRRIGATION.
This matter is one not merely of local interest
to the West, but is of even greater concern to the
East, and to all who are dependent upon the manu-
facturing and transporting interests, as well as to
the farmers who supply all of these workers with
food. The widening of settlement in the West
means a rapidly increasing market for goods manu-
factured in the East and transported to the West.
With more people engaged in making the finished
articles and carrying them to the West, there comes
a larger and larger demand for agricultural prod-
ucts, especially those raised near the manufactur-
ing centres. In short, the prosperity of the whole
country follows the upbuilding of any considerable
portion.
The vacant public lands are for the most part
desert-like in character, and their utilization can
come about only through irrigation, or the arti-
ficial application of water to the soil, to supplement
the scanty rainfall or to supply its absence. In
a wider sense, irrigation is taken to include the
whole question of conservation and utilization of
water in the development of the arid regions, and
to embrace a discussion of features of social and
political importance arising from the reclamation
of the arid public domain. In the first instance,
irrigation is of greatest importance to the farmer
who is attempting to raise crops in a country of
deficient rainfall. He wishes to produce the most
profitable fruits or grains with the least expendi-
IRRIGATIOM.
PLATE I.
RECLAMATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS. 3
ture of time and energy. For him a discussion of
irrigation means a description of the methods of
applying water, the amount to be given to various
soils and to different crops, and the results obtained
by applying or withholding water at various periods
of plant life. In the second instance, irrigation is
of concern to all citizens of the United States,
since they are the great landowners, and as such
are interested to see that their lands are put to the
best uses ; it is their duty, as citizens, to guard
the public lands, the heritage of their children,
and prevent their falling into the hands of persons
who will treat them as speculative commodities.
It is from both these standpoints that the subject
is here discussed. It is unquestionably a duty of
the highest citizenship to enable a hundred homes
of independent farmers to exist, rather than one
or two great stock ranches, controlled by non-
residents, furnishing employment only to nomadic
herders. These alternatives and their results must
be borne in mind to appreciate properly the effect
of either neglect or forethought upon the future of
the country.
The mineral or substance which has the greatest
direct influence upon man, his health and indus-
tries, is water. Its quality, and especially its
quantity, directly affect his occupations. If there
is too much, the ground is marshy, malarial, and
unfit for cultivation ; if too little, the plants valuable
for food do not thrive. There is a narrow range
4 IRRIGATION.
between excess and deficiency, and upon the nice
adjustment of the balance between moisture and
drought depends the existence of prosperous com-
munities.
Taking the world as a whole, the greater part of
the earth's surface is not utilized, even though the
climatic conditions as regards heat and cold are
favorable for occupation. The outer covering of
disintegrated rock and vegetal mould known as
the soil is suitable for the support of useful plants,
except in the one respect — that of moisture. Most
plants require a certain continuous supply of water,
neither too much nor too little. In humid cli-
mates where the annual rainfall is fifty inches or
over, there are enormous areas so thoroughly
saturated with water that farm crops are not pos-
sible. The creation of homes here is dependent
upon ability to remove by drainage the excess of
water. In contrast to this there are in the arid
region still greater expanses of good soil where
the occasional rains are not sufficient to bring food
plants to maturity.
The location of the vacant public land is shown
on the accompanying diagram (Fig. i), which gives
the outline of the United States from the 9/th
meridian westerly to the Pacific coast. Texas is
excluded, as this state, entering the Union from
the condition of an independent republic, retained
control of its land. The black areas on the small
map indicate the lands which have passed out of
VACANT PUBLIC LAND.
5
the possession of the general government. In the
eastern part it is seen that practically all of the
land has been disposed of. White spots appearing
in the black areas of western Kansas and Nebraska
Forest reservations
FlG. I. — Map of vacant public land.
indicate that there are still a few tracts left un-
touched. Near its centre the greater part of the
map is white, indicating that nearly all of the land
is under the control of Congress, the black spots
IRRIGATION.
in this area showing, usually in exaggerated form,
the relative position of lands taken by farmers or
stock men. Near the Pacific coast the area dis-
posed of again increases, including most of the
valleys. The area of the land surface of each
state and territory and the amount vacant in each,
also the extent of land held in forest, Indian,
military, and other reservations are shown in the
following table.
VACANT AND RESERVED AREAS IN THE WESTERN PUBLIC
LAND STATES.
STATE OR
TOTAL AREA
VACANT
PER
RESERVED
PER
TERRITORY.
ACRES.
ACRES.
CENT.
ACRES.
CENT.
Arizona . . .
72,332,800
47,082,321
65.I
20,344,487
28.1
California . .
101,350,400
33,156,877
32.7
21,874,865
21.6
Colorado . . .
66,512,000
30,110,586
45-3
11,197,552
1 6.8
Idaho ....
53,272,000
33,485,389
62.9
7,801,355
14.4
Kansas . . .
52,531,200
942,483
1.8
120,215
0.2
Montana . . .
93,491,200
55,748,400
59-6
18,566,188
19.9
Nebraska
49,606,400
4,481,958
9.0
628,855
'•3
Nevada . . .
70,848,000
61,226,774
86.4
5,983,409
8.4
New Mexico
78,451,200
52,095,312
66»4
7,57',223
9.6
North Dakota .
45,308,800
7,050,306
15.6
3,438,709
7.6
Oklahoma . .
24,979,200
1,983,249
7-9
M37,II7
5.8
Oregon . . .
61,459,200
20,l8o,26l
32-8
14,495,400
23-6
South Dakota .
49,696,000
9,932,H3
20. i
12,236,301
24.6
Utah ....
54,380,800
38,847,341
71.4
8,360,121
15-4
Washington .
44,275,200
8,566,563
19-3
",392,757
25-7
Wyoming . .
62,649,600
37,623,329
60.0
14,017,618
22.4
' Total . . .
981,144,000
442,513,262
45-1
159,466,172
16.2
IRRIGATION.
PLATE II.
RAILROAD LAND GRANTS. 7
Stretching across the map are a number of bands
made up of lines crossing one another. These indi-
cate the size and position of the great railroad land
grants, within which every alternate section has
been given as bonus for the construction of trans-
continental lines of communication. These are,
from north to south : the Northern Pacific, the
Union Pacific to Ogden, the Central Pacific from
there to California, the Atlantic and Pacific, and
the Southern Pacific. In addition to these vast
grants of land are seen the narrower wagon-road
grants in the state of Oregon. Two classes of
reservations are indicated on the map, namely,
the lands held for Indians, and those set aside for
the preservation of the forests. The locations of
these are shown on the map, Fig. 10, p. 34.
The fact which it is desired to bring out at this
time is the enormous extent of the public land and
the way in which it is cut up by grants, reserva-
tions, and private holdings.
The public lands are open to entry and settle-
ment under what is known as the Homestead Law,
the intent of which is to provide homes especially
for that part of the population who are capable of
self-support, and who, having little or no capital
beyond their labor, are eager to make for them-
selves homes and to become landowning citizens.
It is not the purpose of the land laws to dispose of
the lands as rapidly as possible, but on the contrary
to serve as an outlet for the energy and labor of
8 IRRIGATION.
the nation. This object is peculiarly important at
times of industrial depression when men seek work
in vain, and gladly avail themselves of the oppor-
tunities which in the past have been offered on the
public domain. The stability of the government
has been largely due to the fact that there has
always been this outlet for superfluous labor, and
opportunities for the making of homes.
Within the last decade, however, a great change
has gradually come about, and its effects are only
now being noticed. The original intent of the land
laws is not being accomplished as far as home-
steading is concerned, because the remaining public
lands, although of enormous extent as previously
stated, are for the most part within the arid region,
and crops cannot be produced until a water supply
has been obtained sufficient to moisten the soil
during the growing time. There is a considerable
amount of water which can thus be employed, but
the expense of utilizing it is too great for the
settler. The localities where water can easily be
diverted to the thirsty soil have already been taken
up by the pioneers. The larger works necessary
to take water to less accessible localities require
the investment of considerable sums of money, far
beyond the reach of the ordinary settler.
In the old days it was possible for a man with a
team and the ordinary farm tools to construct
ditches leading from the creeks flowing out of the
mountains, and to provide channels by which his
RECTANGULAR SURVEYS. 9
farm could be irrigated. In this way he was able
to produce crops on the low lands along the rivers,
and to gradually extend the system of water supply
even to the adjacent terraces or bench lands. But
the later comers find that the small streams are
already fringed with farms, and the land lying be-
yond these, although sometimes better in quality,
cannot be reached without incurring great expense.
It is for the interest of the public at large and
the nation to have all of these good agricultural
lands utilized ; and the question arises, Who is to
make it possible for the settler to occupy them ?
This is a question which, if satisfactorily answered,
must be by the lawmakers of the nation, and for
this purpose they, as well as the thinking public,
should be in possession of the facts.
The laws governing the disposal of public lands
have been drawn almost wholly with reference to
the broad prairies and plains of the Mississippi
Valley, where the rainfall is sufficient for the
maturing of crops. Under the prevailing system
of dividing the land, surveys are made in such a
manner as to cut it into blocks as nearly square as
possible, lines being run north and south, east and
west, at intervals of six miles, enclosing areas of
approximately thirty-six square miles, known as
townships. Each side of the township is divided
into miles, and from these points are run cross lines
which subdivide the land into thirty-six sections,
each containing one square mile, or 640 acres.
10 IRRIGATION.
These again are cut into quarter-sections, consist-
ing of 160 acres, and finally into fourths of a
quarter-section, consisting of 40 acres and com-
monly known as forties. The sections are num-
bered consecutively, beginning at the northeast
corner of the township, and continuing westerly,
then easterly, and back and forth, ending in Sec-
tion thirty-six in the southeast corner.
These lines of rectangular survey are run
wholly without reference to natural features, such
as smaller streams, hills, and valleys. In the well-
watered, comparatively level country, such as the
Ohio and Mississippi valleys and the Great Plains,
this disregard of the natural features is unimportant
when compared with the desirability of having
simple and easily denned boundaries. Here, where
the rainfall is sufficient for the production of crops,
practically every quarter-section of the flat or gently
rolling country is as good as the next, there being
small difference of soil or of surface slopes. Each
farmer taking up a quarter-section is independent as
regards- his method of cultivation, and can conduct
his operations in such manner as his experience may
dictate. In the vast arid regions, however, where
lie the greater part of the remaining public lands,
the value of the farm depends almost wholly upon
the question of water supply. The accessibility
and permanence of this far outweigh all other
considerations. The interests of each farmer are
closely allied with those of his neighbor, as all must
WATER MONOPOLY. II
depend upon streams or sources of supply used
in common. Here independence must give way
to cooperation ; and while adjoining lands may be
equally good as regards soil, their value may be far
different, because water can be taken to one tract
while for the other none can be had. The nlaffi
who controls the water virtually owns everything
of value. This fact has not been sufficiently rec-
ognized in laws governing the disposal of the pub-
lic lands, and in many localities water monopoly
has resulted from the neglect of needed safeguards.
Title to a few hundred acres along watercourses has
virtually given possession to thousands of acres of
other land, preventing settlers from acquiring these
because they are shut off from access to the springs
or streams. In short, the creation of hundreds of
homes has been prevented by neglecting to protect
the right to the use of the scanty water supply.
Without going into details, it is sufficient to state
that the rectangular system of division of the public
lands, while one of the most beneficial measures
leading to the settlement of the Ohio and Missis-
sippi valleys, has been found to be detrimental to
the best growth of the western two-fifths of the
United States. This has arisen from lack of knowl-
edge by the public, the owners of the land, as to
the part which irrigation plays in the utilization of
the .resources of the West. Attention has been
concentrated upon land titles, and great care has
been exercised in the survey and marking of boun-
12 IRRIGATION.
daries and in recording the patents or deeds ; while
the water, which alone gives value, has hardly
been considered, and the rights to its use have
often been left to be adjusted largely by local or
temporary expedients. It would have been far
better, if one or the other of these items must have
been neglected, to have given first thought to the
water and secondary consideration to the land, sub-
dividing this with reference more to the possibility
of obtaining water than for convenience of survey.
To remedy this and bring about such a condition
that the remaining public lands may furnish the
greatest possible number of homes, is an object
worthy the sustained effort of enlightened and pa-
triotic citizens. To assemble the facts upon which
intelligent action can be based is a task to which
the best efforts of aspiring students or investiga-
tors may be directed. These facts pertain first of
all to the water supply and its limitations, since, in
a country where arid land is in excess, the agricul-
tural area is limited by the available water.
CHAPTER II.
THE ARID REGIONS.
THE arid regions of the United States include
about two-fifths of its entire area, and extend from
about the middle of the continent west nearly to
the Pacific Ocean. There are no sharply marked
lines or divisions between the arid and humid areas,
but intermediate, especially near the centre of the
United States, is a broad belt neither distinctly
arid nor humid, which has sometimes been called
the subhumid, or again the semiarid, region. This
belt extends over South and North Dakota, west-
ern Nebraska, and western Kansas into Oklahoma
and the "pan handle" of Texas. In some years
of excessive moisture the subhumid region creeps
up toward the foothills of the Rocky Mountains,
while, during the dry years, the greater part of the
plains region west of the Missouri becomes semi-
arid.
In a general way arid regions are taken as in-
cluding those of twenty or less inches of aver-
age annual rainfall ; thus, the arid regions of
the United States are but a portion of those of
13
14 IRRIGATION.
North America, which. embraces a considerable part
of Mexico on the south and of Canada on the
north. The relative extent of these regions of
humidity and of aridity can best be shown by a
small diagram (Fig. 2).
Modern civilization has developed largely in
humid regions, and we have thus come to regard
FlG. 2. — Map of humid, semiarid, and arid regions of the United States.
aridity as something exceptional ; as a matter of
fact, however, a great part of the countries of the
Old World have less than twenty inches of annual
rainfall, and according to our ideas must be con-
sidered as arid. The civilization of former times
grew up in these arid regions, and we cannot fully
appreciate the writings of the ancients and the true
meaning of many familiar phrases handed down
IRRIGATION.
PLATE III,
RESULTS OF ATTEMPTS TO MAKE HOMES ON THE PUBLIC LANDS
WITHOUT FIRST PROVIDING METHODS OF IRRIGATION.
ARID REGIONS OF THE WORLD. 15
to us without bearing in mind that theirs was an
arid region, where agriculture was successful only
through irrigation.
The small map (Fig. 3) illustrates the great
extent of aridity, and shows that the Mediterra-
nean countries, including Egypt, the seat of an-
cient civilization, are for the most part arid and
FlG. 3. — Map of humid and arid regions of the world [the humid
indicated by the black areas].
desert-like in character. The dense foliage of the
forests of eastern United States and of Europe
and the verdant covering of turf so common in our
modern towns and villages were practically unknown
to the races who produced the sacred books of the
East ; and their constant reference to the life-giving
qualities of water furnishes innumerable instances
of the high esteem in which this was held.
16 IRRIGATION.
PRECIPITATION.
Aridity, or rather the unequal distribution of
moisture, is largely the result of topography, or in-
equalities of land surface. If the earth were per-
fectly flat, it is probable that the winds, meeting
with no obstructions, would distribute the rains with
considerable uniformity in broad bands approxi-
mately parallel to the equator ; but the relatively
thin layer of dense atmosphere surrounding the
globe is disturbed in its uniform flow by the lofty
mountain masses which traverse the continents.
The atmosphere surrounding the earth extends
outward for many miles, but it is the layer, a mile
or two in thickness, resting immediately upon the
surface, and relatively dense, within which occur
the changes or disturbances that make up what
we know as " weather." The movements of the
air above this thin layer concern us little ; but
the behavior of the clouds and the winds near the
surface of the ground brings success or failure to
the farmer, and affects more or less directly other
industries, and even health.
Taking the United States as a whole, the general
atmospheric movement is from west to east; the
moisture-laden winds from the Pacific, encounter-
ing the mountain masses which extend along or
parallel to the coast, are forced upward and cooled,
depositing much of their moisture, especially in
the winter season. They then pass easterly as dry
PRECIPITATION. 17
winds, leaving the broad plains east of the Sierra
Nevada parched and sterile^ In the summer, how-
ever, when the mountains have become relatively
warm, winds from the Pacific pass over them with-
out leaving their moisture, and the result is the
summer drought characteristic of the Pacific
coast. Passing onward, the winds not deprived of
humidity give up from time to time some of the
precious fluid, and thus in the interior there are
the occasional summer rains which tend to make
amends for the deficient precipitation of the winter
season.
East 'of the Sierra Nevada and Coast ranges,
and of the plains and deserts at their base, are
scattered irregular mountain ranges, and the great
Cordillera or Rocky Mountain system, whose high
summits intercept some of the rain-bearing winds,
and these for the most part are well watered, while
the low lands are parched with drought. From
the east face of the Rocky Mountains the High
Plains stretch out through the Mississippi Valley,
dropping gradually in altitude to the rolling plains
and prairies.
The average monthly precipitation is illustrated
by the accompanying diagram (Fig. 4), which brings
out graphically the contrast between the distribu-
tion of precipitation on the western coast and in
the interior. The height of each of the small
black columns represents the average amount of
rain for the corresponding month. Taking, for
i8
IRRIGATION.
example, San Francisco, it is seen that the rain
for January averages ^more than four inches, the
amount decreasing during February, March, and
April, and becoming less than one-half an inch
ftH
WALLAWALLA
BOISE.
\ ELLLIS
iillllllillil
FT B I DWELL
PROMONTORY
CHLYENNE
• ••••••-•Hi
SAN FRANCISCO
B EOWAWE
SANTA Ft
It
....illlHiii
SAND1EGO
YUMA
FT STANTOK
iE
.H..IMI1.I
FIG. 4. — Mean monthly precipitation at twelve localities in western
United States.
in May. In June, July, August, and September
there is practically a drought, with sudden increase
in amount of precipitation in October, November,
and December. In contrast to this is the distribu-
MONTHLY RAINFALL. 19
tion of rainfall at Santa Fe, where the spring and
winter months have comparatively little rainfall,
the greatest amount occurring in July and August.
Thus it may happen that, although there is more
than twenty inches of rainfall each year at points
near the Pacific coast, yet irrigation is necessary
during the latter part of the crop season, and
especially in the summer ; while in other localities
having less annual rainfall, but with heavy sum-
mer precipitation, the artificial application of water
is not needed.
This diagram (Fig. 4) illustrates the actual
amount of rain and snow fall in an average year
at the various points, and shows that there is
a wide difference in the quantity received. In
some localities there is about the same amount of
rainfall each month, and in others there are sum-
mer droughts. This matter is brought out more
clearly when we compare, not the actual amount
of rain each month, but the proportion which this
bears to the total precipitation of the year ; that is
to say, calling the average annual rainfall for each
locality 100, the amount for one month, if the rain,
fell equally throughout the year, would be 8.33, or
y1^ of the whole, whether the total amount for the
year be 15 inches or 50 inches. By thus obtain-
ing monthly percentages, it is possible to compare
the character of the rainfall in different parts of
the United States. This is done in the following
diagram (Fig. 5), which shows, not the actual
20
IRRIGATION.
depth of rain, but the percentage for each month
in four localities, namely : Buffalo, New York ;
8
25
nl ! tis ii mill fit tin
Buffalo, New York.
Prescott, Arizona.
Lawrence, Kan
i. .1
San Francisco, California.
FlG. 5. — Types of monthly distribution of precipitation, shown by per-
centages of average annual rainfall.
Lawrence, Kansas ; Prescott, Arizona ; and San
Francisco, California.
In the case of Buffalo it is seen that the average
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION. 21
rainfall for each month ranges from 7 to 10 per
cent, never quite reaching the latter, and thus
showing that throughout the year very nearly
the same amount of precipitation occurs. Com-
paring this with Prescott, Arizona, it is seen that
the average precipitation in one month, June, is
less than 2 per cent, while in the next two months
it is raised to over 17 per cent, showing the great
irregularity and the necessity of providing against
a June drought.
The diagrams for Lawrence, Kansas, and for
San Francisco, California, are seen to supplement
each other, although in San Francisco the ex-
tremes are far greater than in Kansas. There is
no month in the latter state when the rain aver-
ages less than 4 per cent of the total, while in
California, during July and August, the precipita-
tion is practically nothing.
These diagrams, being illustrative of averages
of a considerable number of years, exhibit a regu-
larity which does not occur in any one year. The
monthly rainfall, while tending to follow in the
long run a certain law, is from season to season
extremely erratic, — the amount in one year
being sometimes one-half as much or twice as
great as that of another. To illustrate these fluc-
tuations the accompanying diagram (Fig. 6) is
given, showing the variation in annual rainfall
at three points near the centre of the arid regions,
viz., Salt Lake City, Utah, Fort Wingate, and
22
IRRIGATION.
/aso-/aa+ was -
SAL
— /ass /aao —/as4 /a
T LAHf C/rr, UTAH.
9S- Santa Fe, New
£ Mexico. The
average annual
-•-fc rainfall, indi-
cated by the
» heavy horizon-
tal line, is for
- ^ Salt Lake City
a little over 1 5
ro/r,
r W/NGA £,N.M.
1880, however,
the amount was
1 1 inches, and
my QQ r ripQrlv
> •
22 inches,
.10
^ ll
fluctuating, as
shown on the
i II 1
diagram, be-
0 tweenioand22
*
-ANTE re MM.
inches. Similar
20 differences can
be seen in the
is diagrams for
R± I I
Fort Win gate
- - I0 and Santa Fe.
111
l\
Itistobenoted,
\
l\
the years of
' CAUCbb dllU UC-
FlG. 6. — Variation in annual rainfall at points in .
the arid region. ficiency are not
IRRIGATION.
PLATE IV.
ANNUAL RAINFALL. 23
coincident even in the localities not so very far
apart.
When deficiency occurs, the effects of the aridity
are notably increased, and an exceptionally large
amount of water is needed to supply the lack of
rain. These same fluctuations occur in humid cli-
mates, but their effects are not so marked. For
example, in a country like that of the Atlantic sea-
board, where the precipitation averages 50 inches,
a deficiency of 10 inches during the year may not
have a noticeable effect upon the crops and indus-
trial conditions, but in a country of 20 inches of
annual rainfall a deficiency of 10 inches may re-
sult in the disappearance of rivers and the destruc-
tion of the scanty vegetation, so valuable in cattle
and sheep industries.
The amount of precipitation on the surface of
the country, although varying greatly from season
to season and from year to year, has been found to
have a certain stability when looked at in a large
way. That is to say, although for a series of years
the rainfall may apparently have been increasing
or diminishing, yet, taking a long record, as for
example one hundred years, it has been found that
the average for the first quarter or third of this
is practically the same as that for the last third or
quarter. In short, it has not been possible to de-
tect any progressive increase or diminution in the
amount of precipitation when records extending
over thirty or forty years are had,
26 IRRIGATION.
The average or what is termed the normal pre-
cipitation for each part of the country can be com-
puted. Departures from this normal may be in
one year or another very great, and for a series of
years the rainfall may be above or below the nor-
mal ; nevertheless, the weather conditions seem to
swing back, no matter how far they have swayed.
The climate may be regarded as fixed, although
the weather changes widely and rapidly.
It is because climate has certain fixed relations
to localities, that it becomes possible to make maps
showing the general distribution of precipitation.
The accompanying map (Fig. 7) gives the distri-
bution of rainfall, including melted snow, over the
United States. It indicates that in the East, along
the Appalachian region and near the coast, there
is a heavy rainfall, the amount decreasing inland,
and increasing again very rapidly along the Pacific
coast. The points of greatest rainfall are in north-
western Washington near Puget Sound, and at the
opposite extreme of the country, near the Gulf and
Atlantic coast.
The above-described map shows the depth of
water which falls upon the land. If this did not
flow off during the year, but all stood where it fell,
the ground would be covered with water from an
inch or two in depth in the arid region up to five
or six feet, or even more, on the mountains and
along parts of the seacoast. Some, of this water,
however, sinks into the soil or evaporates, and the
FORESTS. 27
remainder flows off, forming streams. In the
present discussion we are particularly concerned
with that portion which runs off on the surface,
and at this place a companion map (Fig. 8) is in-
troduced to show the quantity of run-off, in com-
parison with the rainfall. This indicates that where
the rain is heaviest the run-off is largest, while in
localities where the rain is very light there may be
no run-off and perennial streams do not exist.
These matters are more fully discussed on page
58, but it should be noted that where there is
the greatest rainfall, there is also the largest pro-
portion of this — 50 per cent or more — flowing in
the stream ; while where the rainfall is least, only
i or 2 per cent, or even none, goes to form
rivers.
FORESTS.
The mistaken conception is sometimes held by
citizens of the humid East that aridity implies
desert conditions, the absence of vegetation, and
the existence of naked rocks and sand glistening
in the brilliant sunshine. On the contrary, the
area of land which should be classed as desert is
relatively small. West of the Great Salt Lake is
a desert-like plain of sand and alkali, almost desti-
tute of vegetation, where a few thorny or woody
plants are to be found at intervals. Also, in south-
ern California, west of the Colorado River, is the
Salton Desert, embracing the bottom of an ancient
arm of the Gulf of California, the land surface
28 IRRIGATION.
being in some places three hundred feet below sea
level, but shut off from the tides by the bars and
ridges of mud brought down by the river. It is
estimated that there are 70,000,000 acres of such
desert in the United States out of the entire area
of 973,000,000 acres comprising the western public
land states and territories, or about 7 per cent
of their land surface. The remainder of the arid
regions, exclusive of these deserts, is covered with
a more or less scanty vegetation of some value to
mankind.
In this connection it is desirable to emphasize
the fact that in the arid regions of the United
States there are no desert conditions comparable in
character and extent with those of Africa. There
are all gradations of aridity, these differing for the
same locality in successive years, owing to fluctua-
tions in the amount of rainfall. In the somewhat
arbitrary Classifications just adopted, the assump-
tion has been made that lands may be considered
as desert where for a number of years in succession
grazing is impossible. There may be seasons at
rare intervals when the explorer or surveyor can
cross even these areas and find occasional water
and forage plants.
The higher mountain slopes and mesas whose
abrupt rise forces upward the winds, and compels
them to deposit moisture, have, as a consequence
of the increased precipitation, a covering of trees.
These are often scattered, but in many localities
EXTENT OF FORESTS. 2Q
they form dense and valuable forests. Within the
arid and semiarid portions of the Western states it
is estimated that nearly 124,000,000 acres are cov-
ered with woodland, the individual trees, though
scattered, having value for firewood, fence posts,
and other purposes essential to the success of the
pioneers and farmers. In addition, however, over
97,000,000 acres are covered with heavy forests,
having commercial value for timber and furnishing
logs for sawmills (see page 55).
The aggregate of the area of desert, woodland,
and forest forms a little over one-third of the extent
of the arid and semiarid regions ; the remainder,
estimated at 446,000,000 acres, is grazing land.
Thus, so far as area is concerned, it is evident that
the grazing industry — the raising of range stock,
cattle, horses, sheep, and goats is, and probably
always will be, the great industry. When values
are considered, however, there is another point of
view.
The open range of the arid regions is generally
stated to be capable of supporting a cow for every
twenty or thirty acres ; the same land, when watered
and put in alfalfa, will frequently feed ten times as
many cattle, or in orchards, with favorable climate,
will support a family of three, or even five persons.
The open range may have a value of 50 cents an
acre, while under irrigation the selling price may
rise to $50 per acre, or even $500 per acre when
in orchards. Thus the value of the lands is
30 IRRIGATION.
directly reversed as regards acreage, the grazing
land having the greatest extent, and the irrigated
land the least, with the maximum value per
acre.
The forests of the arid region not only mark the
greatest rainfall, but also indicate the locality from
which come the principal streams. The head waters
of nearly all of the rivers which give value to the
lands are within forested regions (PL V.) It is
commonly known that the forests to a certain
extent protect, or even regulate, the flow of these
streams, and it has been urged that the largest and
best development of the country requires the con-
servation of the forests along the head waters.
Forest conservation is practicable, when joined
with a proper cutting of the timber. Experience
has shown that the removing of the mature or ripe
trees, such as are best adapted for lumber, may
improve the general conditions of the forests. Vir-
gin forests finally reach a stage where decay bal-
ances growth, and it is clear that matured trees
should be cut and utilized before they have lost
their value, their place being given to the younger
and thriftier growth previously retarded by the
shade of the older trees. From the commercial
standpoint trees have first value for lumber. Fortu-
nately the proper use of the forests in producing
lumber is not antagonistic to their preservation
and to the perpetuation of favorable conditions
of water supply.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE V.
FORESTS PARTLY DESTROYED (THE DRAINAGE FROM THIS
IRRIGATING THE FIELDS SHOWN BELOW).
CULTIVATED FIELDS RECEIVING WATER FROM THE PARTLY
FORESTED MOUNTAINS.
FOREST PROTECTION. 31
Public sentiment has been aroused to such an
extent that steps have already been taken to pre-
serve many of the forests of the head water streams
of the West, primarily for the beneficial influence
the leafy cover may have upon the river flow. The
national government has set aside over 90,000,000
acres of the forests and adjacent woodlands, and
efforts are being made to preserve all the remain-
ing large bodies of public forests thus situated.
This first step is being followed by an administra-
tion which will preserve the forests from their
great enemy, fire, and will ensure a businesslike
treatment of them, under which they will yield a
revenue.
Protection and conservative management of the
forest at the head waters of the streams will con-
serve the water supply, while the returns from tim-
ber sale and grazing privilege will more than pay
the cost of management.
The accompanying small map (Fig. 9) exhibits
the general distribution of the forests of the West,
dark spots marking the mountains or highlands.
On this map the black portions indicate the rela-
tive position of the areas upon which trees of
commercial value are growing, or have recently
grown ; the areas surrounded by an irregular line
indicate the wooded localities and lower mountains
upon which are scattered trees whose size or con-
dition is such that they are not suitable for lumber,
although they have great value to the settler and
IRRIGATION.
farmer in the way of furnishing cheap fuel and
material for fence posts and for building cabins,
FIG. 9. — Forests and woodlands of the West.
corrals, and shelter for cattle. Much of the open
woodland has been wisely included in forest res-
LOCATION OF FORESTS. 33
erves, since the trees, though scattered, are ex-
tremely valuable as protection cover.
The forest reserves already created do not by any
means embrace all the public lands covered with val-
uable trees. Each reserve has been set aside for
some specific purpose, particularly with reference to
the protection of the head waters of streams used in
irrigation. The relative location of these reserves
is shown in Fig. 10, on page 34, in connection with
the areas of arid land whose reclamation is now be-
ing undertaken by the government under the terms
of the Reclamation Act of June 17, 1902.
On this map the spots in solid black indicate the
location and extent of the lands which will prob-
ably be irrigated by the works built by the govern-
ment with the proceeds of the disposal of public
lands. These black spots are surrounded by an
irregular outline, which indicates the area within
which lands have been temporarily set aside for
examination pending the final determination of the
exact area to be watered. A glance at this little
map shows the relative extent and importance of
the forest reserves, and their size, as compared
. with the tracts which are being watered.
In the drawing have been included the areas
within the Yellowstone,* Rainier, and Yosemite
national parks, although the control of these is
distinct from that of the forest reserves proper.
The care and protection of the forest reserves has,
by Act of Congress approved February I, 1905,
34
IRRIGATION.
been transferred to the Department of Agriculture
and a forest service created for their administration.
This service now has entire jurisdiction and control
of the cutting of timber and the grazing of sheep
FIG. 10. — Relative position of the forest reserve and national irrigation
projects.
and cattle ; but does not have charge of the land
titles, or matters pertaining to real estate owner-
ship, or boundary surveys. The matters of title
are left with the General Land Office, but the
MAPPING THE FORESTS. 35
conduct of the general survey of the regions within
and adjacent to the reserves has been intrusted to
the Geological Survey. Detailed topographic maps
^are being prepared, showing all elevations of
the surface, the streams and their catchment areas,
the extent of burns resulting from fires, the amount
of cutting, and the location of roads, trails, houses,
or cabins. Upon the topographic base thus pre-
pared are also shown, by appropriate colors, the
general character and commercial value of the
standing timber.
Following the mapping of the forest reserves
comes the systematic examination and preparation
of working plans by the Forest Service of the
Department of Agriculture. This bureau, which
is working in close cooperation with the Geological
Survey, examines the forests with great detail in
respect to the character and condition of the tim-
ber, in order to obtain facts upon which to base
working plans — that is, recommendations or out-
lines of methods to be pursued in the cutting and
removal of the timber so as to yield the largest
returns, and at the same time to leave the forest in
condition to insure future revenue, and to increase
the percentage of valuable trees. By an efficient
protection from fire and by following carefully
considered working plans, it is possible to enlarge
the wooded areas upon the head waters of streams
of the arid West, and to increase the beneficial
effect, in regulating the flow of the streams upon
36 IRRIGATION
which the irrigators depend, thus serving a double
purpose in assuring to the settler a never failing
supply both of timber and of water.
GRAZING LANDS.
By far the greater portion of the arid West con-
sists of open grazing lands. These vary in their
covering of forage plants from the extremely scanty
vegetation of the deserts up to the thick turf which
is to be found within the mountain parks. The
broad sandy deserts occasionally receive a down-
pour from the local storms or cloudbursts, and
there springs up at once a scanty herbage, which,
though apparently dry and woody, is nutritious
and is eagerly sought by the cattle. On the less
arid plains there are to be found every year a num-
ber of grasses and smaller plants or shrubs, which,
drying under the intense heat, become in effect
naturally cured hay, and which, though sparsely
distributed, thus furnish sustenance for horses,
cattle, and sheep.
As summer approaches and the heat upon the
deserts and plains becomes intolerable, the herds
and flocks gradually move up into the mountains,
and find excellent grazing upon the broad slopes and
open spaces within the forested areas ; thus a
considerable part of the land shown on the small
map (Fig. 9) as wooded and forested is also of
value for grazing. The interests of the cattle
owner, and especially the sheep owner, and of the
GRAZING IN THE FORESTS. 37
forester are sometimes at variance, since the cattle,
and more particularly the sheep, when the coun-
try has been overgrazed, browse upon the young
herbage and prevent the growth of small trees ; so
it is often important to exclude sheep, and even
cattle, from the forests in order that the trees may
reproduce themselves. The extension of forest
reserves has been frequently opposed by the sheep
and cattle interests, and the administration of the
reserves has been hampered by the demand for
free grazing upon the public lands. This opposi-
tion has now ceased ; moreover the policy of per-
mitting grazing under regulation on the forest
reserves has to a great extent done away with the
opposition to them. The grazing fee where charged
is small, drift or division fences are allowed under
certain conditions, and special concessions are
made to protect and assist home-builders or those
who are trying to live upon the small farms near
the reserves.
The sheep industry is one of the most important
of the arid regions, and the profits are large, so that
from a commercial standpoint it is highly important
that the grazing lands extend as widely as possible,
even into the forest reserves. Working plans for
the forests have been prepared, such that, while pre-
venting overgrazing, they will permit the use of the
forests as a summer range with a minimum amount
of injury to the young growth. A general plan has
recently been adopted, which it is hoped will ulti-
38 IRRIGATION.
mately satisfy the irrigators on the one hand, who
are concerned in protecting their water supply, and
the sheep owners on the other, who demand that
their flocks shall graze wherever young plants can
be found.
Forest protection and sheep grazing are not
wholly Incompatible, for there are certain forested
areas where sheep have been and can be allowed
to run without serious damage. The exclusion of
sheep from the forest reserves should, where neces-
sary, be brought about gradually, so as not to injure
this important industry, and the conditions of each
locality must be carefully considered before sheep
and cattle are either excluded or permitted to graze.
The tendency undoubtedly will be to restrict the
wide range of the sheep and to bring the indus-
try to the conditions prevailing in older, settled
communities, where the sheep are fed through a
considerable portion of the year upon improved
pastures, or with forage raised by irrigation.
The approximate location and extent of the open
or free grazing land are shown in the accompany-
ing map (Fig. n), the crossed lines indicating the
lands where, for the most part, sheep, cattle, and
horses graze freely. Some of this is in private
ownership, particularly in western Nebraska and
Kansas. Texas has been excluded, as the state
has sold or leased nearly all of its grazing lands to
large cattle owners and the range land is nearly all
enclosed by fences. The scale of the map is too
EXTENT OF GRAZING.
39
small to exhibit deserts and mountain tops where
no forage plants are found. The sketch empha-
sizes the fact that throughout nearly one-half of
FIG. ii. — Approximate location and extent of the open range.
the United States grazing is the principal industry.
Any plan of reclamation and utilization of the
vast arid areas must take cognizance of this fact
and be shaped accordingly.
Irrigation may be regarded from one standpoint
40 IRRIGATION.
as an outgrowth or later development of the graz-
ing industry, especially in the more northern part of
the arid region. In the early days the sheep and
cattle on the open ranges at the approach of cold
weather were brought into the lower valleys or
sought natural shelter. During severe winters the
losses were very large, occasionally one-half of
the stock dying during long-continued or extremely
stormy weather. With the increase in the busi-
ness and the overstocking of the ranges, the neces-
sity of providing winter feed for the young or less
vigorous animals became more evident, and at the
home ranches small areas began to be irrigated in
order to provide forage for the winter.
This process has continued to a greater and greater
extent, until a balance has been reached between the
available summer range and the winter food supply
raised by irrigation ; that is to say, a cattle owner
can maintain as many animals as he can feed for
two or three months with forage raised by irriga-
tion, provided he can obtain sufficient range. If,
however, his summer range is limited or is partly
injured by the incursions of sheep, he may find it
economical to reduce the amount of feed raised by
artificial watering.
The tendency in the stock-raising business is
toward an increase of small owners and decrease
of great herds and flocks, owing to the competition
for summer range and the necessity for providing
an increased amount of winter feed. There is a
OVERGRAZING. 41
gradual evolution from stock raising toward what is
sometimes known as stqck farming ; that is, the
owner of a relatively small herd is tempted to put
his irrigated land into other crops besides forage,
or to raise an additional amount for sale in local
markets. Thus, in the stock-raising districts there
is a gradual development toward intensive farming.
Nearly every settler upon the public domain, even
though intending ultimately to raise the ordinary
farm crops and fruits, requires for a time a certain
amount of grazing land. He must have a few
draft animals and dairy cows, and, as a rule, finds
it profitable to own a small herd of cattle or a
band of sheep. He desires and needs the use of
the public land in his vicinity, in order that he may
herd his cattle near his home and bring them in
each day or at frequent intervals.
Under existing law the settler who is making a
home has no legal claim or right to the use of this
public land other than the right possessed by every
citizen of the country. Thus, there frequently
occur acts which seem to the settler to be grossly
unjust, in that cattle or sheep belonging to some
non-resident individual, or to a wealthy corpora-
tion, may come upon the land in his vicinity and
destroy all of the nutritious vegetation, leaving his
own cattle to starve. Since the settler is trying to
make a home and is paying taxes for the mainte-
nance of law and order, he feels that he has a supe-
rior right to the use of the unoccupied land, at least
42 IRRIGATION.
until the land is wanted for homes by other settlers,
or until he is in position to raise by irrigation suffi-
cient forage for his cattle. Thus the settler is often
at war with the cattle and sheep owners, and many
areas which might have been utilized for homes have
been kept vacant through fear of depredations by
the cattlemen or even as the result of open violence.
On the free range there are also controversies
between rival live-stock owners, and particularly be-
tween the sheep owners and the cattlemen. The
manner in which sheep are handled usually gives
them a great advantage in the use of the open
range, and as they feed much closer than cattle,
ff unrestricted they will drive the latter out. With
the growth of the wool industry, the range devoted
to cattle is being encroached upon, and many of the
owners are disposing of their herds and going into
the sheep business, finding it possible to make a
living on the public lands by sheep grazing when
not successful with cattle.
In many localities there has come about what
may be termed an armed neutrality among the
various interests concerned with the use of the
public land. The settler and irrigator, having ob-
tained a foothold, has been able by combining with
his fellows, and by show of force at times, to secure
for himself the use of certain pieces of public land
for grazing. The cattle companies and larger
owners have, as a rule, found it good policy not
to encroach upon the settlers who are already
SHEEP GRAZING. 43
established, and have combined with these men
to exclude sheep from the cattle range used by
all in common. The sheep owners, after various
conflicts and conferences, have agreed to abide
within certain other ranges, and for a time at least
peace has been assured and all have been fairly
content.
The condition just noted is an unstable one,
likely to be upset at any moment by the gradually
increasing herds of one or another of the parties
to the mutual understanding, or by erratic bands
of sheep. For example, by tacit consent a certain
mountainous or hilly area may have been set aside
for cattle grazing for the benefit of the inhabitants
of a portion of a county. It has frequently hap-
pened that the owner of large bands of sheep in
another state, learning that the grazing is good in
this area, sends great bands (PL VI, £>) aggregat-
ing fifty thousand or one hundred thousand sheep
through this part of the country, travelling toward
the mountains or market. Such hordes of sheep,
progressing slowly, literally destroy all edible vege-
tation, devastate and ruin the land, and completely
upset all local customs and privileges. Occasion-
ally an inundation of this kind is resisted by force,
and from time to time local newspapers have a brief
item to the effect that an unknown sheep herder
was found dead in a remote spot, or that bands of
sheep have been dispersed or driven over cliffs by
unknown persons.
44 IRRIGATION.
With the uncertain conditions surrounding the
use of the public lands, it is a natural consequence
that practically all the farmers and irrigators of
the arid region, as well as the stockmen, ask that
there be accorded the grazing lands some definite
treatment by which, pending complete or final set-
tlement, temporary rights may be had to the use of
the forage. It is highly essential for all concerned
to be able to enjoy undisturbed possession from
year to year of certain lands to be used for grazing
purposes. For such a license the owners of the
sheep, cattle, or horses are willing to pay a suitable
compensation.
The necessity of restricting grazing on portions
of the public domain has become apparent, partic-
ularly in Arizona, where in the southern part of the
territory there are areas upon which the industry
has practically exterminated itself. In one locality
in the vicinity of Tucson, where formerly 20,000
head of cattle ranged, only a few hundred can now
find subsistence. This is due to the fact that some
years ago, when there was a decline in the value
of cattle, the shipments were reduced and the herds
multiplied. Then came a season when the drought
was severe, the feed became scanty, and the starv-
ing cattle ate practically every living shrub, digging
down even to the roots, so that plants and cattle
perished together. The few cattle remaining have
been sufficient to prevent the forage plants from
spreading again, but where small areas have been
IRRIGATION.
PLATE VI.
A. YOUNG FOREST GROWTH SUCCEEDING A FIRE.
B. SHEEP GRAZING IN THE FORESTS,
RECOVERY FROM OVERGRAZING. 45
enclosed the native grasses have come back and
are flourishing.
This natural recovery of the enclosed range has
been demonstrated by the Agricultural Experiment
Station of Arizona. A field of 350 acres has been
fenced and carefully studied, the conditions of rain-
fall, moisture distribution, and plant reproduction
•being observed. It has been shown that the
grasses, when protected, not only spread over the
ground, but also serve to obstruct the rapid run-off
of the water resulting from the sudden and capri-
cious storms of the country. The vegetation causes
a greater portion of this water to sink into the soil,
where it is stored for future use by the plants.
The Papago Indians of the Southwest, living by
crude methods of agriculture, have learned how to
make use of the erratic water supply and have
demonstrated the practicability of storing flood
waters in the soil. Whenever it rains and the
water runs down the little gullies near their lands,
every man, woman, and child turns out in the storm
and builds small dams, or levees, holding the water
as far as possible on the series of hastily con-
structed low terraces. When the water sinks in,
they at once plant corn upon the wet surface, and
as a result the tribe is fat and happy during the
next winter. Observation has shown that even as
small an amount of rain as o. I inches will cause
running water on lands denuded by excessive graz-
ing. If, however, this water can be held back by
46 IRRIGATION.
the plants, it will soak into the ground and soon
increase the supply of forage.
There is a balance which must be preserved be-
tween the interests of the cattlemen in keeping the
largest possible number of cattle on a range and
those of* irrigators and the public in general in secur-
ing the best ultimate use of the lands. Too many
cattle means the destruction of the forage plants,
washing of the soil, rapid run-off, and accumula-
tion of silt in the lower rivers. In a larger way
it is really to the interest of the cattlemen not to
overstock the range, but for immediate individual
gain this is always likely to happen unless regu-
lated.
By totally excluding cattle from certain depleted
areas it may be possible to restore these after a
few years, and the natural growth can be further
increased by the construction of inexpensive em-
bankments thrown up by suitable machines or
graders, such as to bring out upon the grazing
land the waters which from time to time come
rushing down the little gullies. It has been shown
on a small scale by the experiments at Tucson that
these embankments can be made by hand at a cost
of less than $1.00 per acre, sufficient to distribute
the storm waters and allow these to soak in, re-
sulting in a yield of grass in that dry climate dense
enough to be mowed by a machine. Instead of
three-quarters of the water rushing off to waste,
practically all of it can thus be held on the upper
LICENSE FOR GRAZING. 47
catchment basins of the rivers and the value of the
range land enormously increased.
Under present conditions there is no inducement
for any person to guard or protect the open range
land, and as a result the valuable forage plants are
eaten down so closely as to be destroyed. If, how-
ever, one man or an association of men had the
exclusive right to the grazing on a certain area for
a term of years, it would be to his or their advan-
tage not to overstock the range, but to treat it in
such a manner that it would not deteriorate.
Should any law be enacted regulating the tem-
porary use of the public land for grazing, it should
be framed in such a way as not to retard the devel-
opment of irrigation and the settlement of the land
by homesteaders. It is probable that the licenses
granted for grazing could be made subject to the
deduction of relatively small areas for settlement
without in any way interfering with the value of
these licenses. The great object is to promote
the permanent settlement of the country and the
making of homes.
In order to provide wise laws, it is necessary to
take cognizance of the customs which have resulted
from experience. In nearly all counties of the arid
states certain practices have arisen in regard to
grazing, many of which might be recognized as
binding, temporarily at least, until better systems
are devised. For example, it has been customary
to take sheep from the winter feeding grounds,
48 IRRIGATION.
where forage raised by irrigation has been pro-
vided, and drive them out along certain portions of
the cattle range up into the mountain valleys to
spend the summer, later bringing them back again
by a different route. This right of transit must be
recognized in any license given for cattle grazing,
and yet must be so guarded as not to be capable
of abuse by keeping the sheep too long ,on the
road and allowing them to eat too great a propor-
tion of the vegetation.
Provisions in permits for sheep grazing can be
made comparatively simple, since the sheep are
always herded and are under complete control.
With cattle and horses, however, close herding is
impracticable, except in the case of small numbers
owned by settlers. It is generally impossible to
assign a definite range to a certain owner, as the
cattle cannot be kept within bounds without expen-
sive fences, and the fencing of the public domain
is and should continue to be illegal. The use of
individual cattle ranges is to a large extent imprac-
ticable except by owners of great herds. As a
rule, it will be necessary to allow the cattle range
to be used in common by many owners, the number
of. head of stock being agreed upon.
This matter of the regulation of grazing has
been emphasized in the preceding pages, as it is
one of fundamental concern in any new country,
and has an intimate relation to the development of
irrigation and the complete utilization of the public
CULTIVATED LANDS. 49
domain. The land laws, which, as before noted,
have been made with reference to the humid con-
ditions, have not recognized this fact, and thus the
rights of the pioneers have been left undefined and
to the arbitration of force rather than of law.
CULTIVATED LANDS.
The cultivated lands of the western half of the
United States, especially those within the arid
region, form but a very small portion of the total
land surface, in some states being less than one
per cent. Dry farming — that is, the cultivation
of the soil without the artificial application of
water — has been attempted, but has been only
moderately successful west of the 9/th merid-
ian, except in the humid regions near the Pacific
coast and in a few localities where the conditions
of soil and of local rainfall have been favorable.
The accompanying map (Fig. 12) has been pre-
pared to illustrate the extent to which dry farming
has been attempted. In the extreme western por-
tion of Kansas and eastern Colorado, experiments
have been conducted on a large scale, but have
rarely been successful ; yet at many of the spots
shown in the centre of the map, and particularly
in Washington, Oregon, and California, wheat and
other cereals are successful where the annual rain-
fall is even less than in eastern Colorado.
One of the notable features on this map is the
fact that these dry farming areas are found in
50 IRRIGATION.
nearly every state and territory of the arid region.
Agriculture without irrigation is thus widely prac-
FIG. 12. — Map of dry farming.
tised, although it must be considered as excep-
tional. The area is gradually being extended as
skill is acquired in the cultivation of some of the
DRY FARMING. 51
more hardy or drought-resisting plants, and as
species or varieties suited to the climatic condi-
tions are found. The cereals, such as rye, wheat,
and barley, form the greater part of the crops thus
raised by dry farming, the growth or development
of these being made possible by thorough tilling of
the soil and by planting at a season of the year
when the largest amount of moisture is available.
As an example of what is being accomplished
without irrigation may be given the bench lands
around Cache Valley in Utah. These high lands,
to which water cannot be brought by ditches, were
ten years ago considered as valueless. Experi-
ments were made by the farmers in growing wheat
on the lower lands without irrigation, and gradu-
ally the cultivated areas were extended up the hill
slopes to the higher lands. Various varieties of
winter wheat were tried, and it was found that
these bench lands, receiving a covering of snow
during the winter, were capable of producing good
crops of wheat. The yield, although not so large
as on irrigated land, is sufficient to afford a fair
profit.
There is reason to hope that, with the activity in
searching for new and valuable plants, and the
numerous experiments being made, the extent of
cultivable land can be greatly increased on the
areas of good soil for which water cannot be had.
It is not reasonable to suppose, however, that dry
farming will ever add greatly to the population
52 IRRIGATION.
and wealth of the arid region ; it will rather tend
to perpetuate the condition of sparse settlement
and careless tilling of large areas. It is only by
practising irrigation where water can be had that
intensive farming is possible, and with this the
best development of the country.
In this connection it is interesting to note the
relative proportion of lands cultivated to those
which may be considered as cultivable, taking a
belt across the United States. The accompanying
figure, prepared by Mr. Willard D. Johnson, is in-
70* M* 33*
FIG. 13. — Comparison of cultivable and cultivated areas in belt of
states across the United States. [The solid black show the cultivated
and the cross-lined portions indicate the uncultivated but cultivable
land.]
tended to illustrate the great difference which
exists. Beginning with Massachusetts, with 33 per
cent of the cultivable area in use, the proportion
gradually increases westward to Illinois and Iowa,
with nearly three-quarters of the land capable of
cultivation in crop, and then decreases rapidly,
until in Nevada only i per cent is utilized. With
complete water conservation and systems for its
distribution, the cultivated area of Utah, Nevada,
and adjacent states might be increased many fold.
The actual amount of land which is irrigable has
been variously estimated at from sixty to one hun-
AREA CULTIVABLE. 53
dred millions of acres. There is possibility of
wide difference of opinion, since all estimates must
be based on certain assumptions as to the com-
pleteness with which the floods can be saved and
waters beneath the surface brought back to the
fields. Noting the wonderful progress in engineer-
ing and in various applications of scientific knowl-
edge, there seems to be ground for the most
optimistic view. On the other hand, when prog-
ress already made is considered, arguments can
be advanced against the practicability of utilizing
much of the erratically distributed water supply
of the arid region. In order to present, however,
some general conception of the possibilities of
irrigation, the accompanying diagram (Fig. 14) has
been prepared, showing by black spots the areas
irrigated and 'by dots the lands irrigable under a
better development of the water resources.
The irrigated lands, whose relative position is in-
dicated by the black spots, are of necessity greatly
exaggerated ; the lands which are actually under
ditch are so scattered and relatively small in area
that on a map of this scale it is impossible to show
them in anything like their true magnitude. The
object of the illustration is to brifig to the eye the
fact that the irrigated lands are scattered through-
out the West, forming in aggregate less than i per
cent of the total land area, and are surrounded by
tracts 5 or 10 times as large, which are capable of
being irrigated under ideal conditions.
54
IRRIGATION.
The following table gives in round numbers the
relative extent of the grazing, woodland, forest, des-
ert, and improved land in the arid and semiarid
FIG. 14. — Map of irrigated and irrigable lands.
public land states. The totals are given in millions
of acres, omitting the figures of less than a million
in all cases except where the totals of improved or
irrigated land are below one million. There is also
LAND CLASSIFICATION.
55
appended a statement of the estimated water sup-
ply, in similar terms, assuming a complete develop-
ment and conservation of the water resources.
GRAZING, WOODLAND, FOREST, DESERT, AND IRRIGATED
LAND, AND EXTENT OF WATER SUPPLY, IN WESTERN
PUBLIC LAND STATES, IN MILLIONS OF ACRES.
•
H
STATES AND TERRI-
p
M
C
rt
"i
|
cu
3
cn
TORIES.
cfl
*O
c
1
1
ti
s
s
a.
a
S
j
O
f
o
Q
J
-
^
Arizona ....
72
38
H
5
15
O.2
0.2
2
California . . .
99
20
19
19
20
15
'•5
"7
Colorado ....
66
40
9
5
2
1.2
8
Idaho
^4
2O
12
ii
I
O C
c
Montana ....
93
56
7
12
0.8
J
II
Nebraska . . .
49
25
2
22
2
Nevada ....
70
42
6
I
20
I
0.5
2
New Mexico . .
78
57
12
4
0.5
O.2
4
North Dakota . .
45
38
I
6
2
Oregon ....
60
18
9
19
5
0-3
3
South- Dakota . .
49
38
i
IO
2
Utah
-2
18
16
4
IO
2
o c
4"
Washington . . .
43
9
13
13
2
o
O.I
3
Wyoming . . .
62
39
3
4
5
I
0.5
9
The desert-like lands — those upon which no
grazing is possible even in winter or after the rains
of early spring — are relatively small; they are
found mainly in the states of California, Nevada,
Utah, Wyoming, and the territory of Arizona. In
all they aggregate about 70,000,00x3 acres, as noted
56 IRRIGATION.
on page 28. The surface of these areas is
mainly sand and barren rock, the soil often being
charged with an excess of soluble earthy salts, so
that, even when moistened, plants cannot grow.
Such, for example, are the broad flats adjacent to
Great Salt Lake, in Utah, and the land around the
sinks of the Humboldt, Carson, and Walker in
Nevada. Other plains, such as those of south-
eastern California adjacent to the Colorado River,
have a soil which is fertile and produces large
crops whenever water can be had. Portions of
these lands are reclaimable by deep or artesian
wells, or by storing in reservoirs the intermittent
floods of small streams which flow from the border-
ing mountains.
On PI. VII are shown views of the broad ex-
panses designated in the geographies of a genera-
tion ago as deserts, impassable for lack of water.
Beneath the surface of many of these almost
boundless wastes water has recently been found,
and by means of windmills it is brought to the
surface, making oases and rendering possible the
use of the land for grazing. The herbage, though
scanty, is nutritious ; and by placing windmills and
tanks at intervals of 10 or 15 miles, cattle can
graze over the whole region.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE VII,
CATTLE ON THE OPEN RANGE.
CHAPTER III.
SURFACE WATERS.
IN the practice of irrigation and in the develop-
ment of the vacant lands of the country the waters
of the surface streams play the most important part,
supplying fully 90 per cent of the irrigated land.
Of less relative importance, but still of great value,
are the underground waters obtained by flowing
wells or by pumping. The accompanying small
map (Fig. 15) shows in a general way the princi-
pal river systems of the United States. The most
striking feature is the relatively large area .drained
by the Mississippi and its tributaries. This extends
from the Appalachian mountain region on the east
to the Rocky Mountains on the west, including a
considerable portion of the arid region. To the
east of the Mississippi basin are numerous large
streams flowing into the Atlantic, and on the north
are the Great Lakes draining into the St. Lawrence.
All of this part of the United States receives a
copious rainfall, usually from 40 to 60 inches per
annum, or even more, as shown by Fig. 7 (p. 24).
In the eastern half of the United States the
great problem is to take away the excess water
57
58 IRRIGATION.
from the lowlands, rather than to bring a needed
supply from some river. Drainage ditches are
dug, in many respects similar to irrigation canals,
but reversed as to slope or grade, — that is, they
conduct the water from the land by gradually
descending channels into rivers at slightly lower
elevation. The methods of building these ditches
and the various devices for controlling the water
resemble those practised in the arid region.
The three principal tributaries of the main or
trunk stream of the Mississippi Valley are the
Ohio, the upper Mississippi, and the Missouri. Of
these the Ohio is by far the largest in volume,
although draining the smallest area of country.
Next to this in importance is the upper Mississippi,
with smaller volume of flow but larger catchment
area ; and third, the Missouri, with extremely large
drainage basin but relatively small flow. The dis-
charge of these streams illustrates a general law,
that, in going from a region of heavy rainfall to
one of light precipitation, there is a rapidly dimin-
ishing quantity of water flowing in the streams, or
" run-off," this decreasing at a more rapid ratio
than does the rainfall. There is proportionately
less ruri-off from the land as the annual precipita-
tion diminishes. That is, on the Ohio basin there
is not only a larger annual rainfall and snowfall,
40 to 60 inches, but a greater portion of this runs
off into the river and flows downward toward
the sea; in the Missouri basin the rainfall is
RUN-OFF. 59
not only less, averaging 10 to 20 inches, but the
proportion which finds its way into the stream is
diminished, so that while possibly 50 per cent of
the rainfall in the Ohio basin appears as water
in the stream, probably not more than 20 per cent
of that which falls upon the country drained by the
Missouri is contributed to the river (see also p. 26).
This law of diminution of the ratio of run-off to
rainfall is further illustrated in the still more arid
country lying to the southwest of the Missouri.
Here is a country where the precipitation is so
small, and the proportion of this which appears in
the stream so insignificant, that the rivers have not
been able to maintain an outlet to the sea, but have
shrunk, and, as shown on the small map, have lost
their connection with the ocean. They flow from
the mountains out into broad valleys, desert-like in
character, and here their waters either are lost by
evaporation or form in the bottom of the valley a
series of shallow lakes, marshes, or sinks. This
country is known as the Great Interior Basin, and
has within its borders on the east the Great Salt
Lake of Utah, the saline remnant of what was
formerly a large fresh water lake overflowing into
Snake River. West of this, in Nevada, are a
number of fresh or slightly brackish lakes, also
shrunken remnants of larger bodies of water.
Between the Great Interior Basin and the Mis-
sissippi and Gulf of Mexico drainage is the area
traversed by the Colorado. This receives its
6o
IRRIGATION.
waters from the Rocky, Wasatch, and Uinta
Mountains, and with its large volume has been
able to maintain its outlet to the Gulf of Califor-
nia. Its energies have, however, been given prin-
cipally to downward cutting ; and the river, as well
as its principal tributaries, flows for the greater
part of its course through gigantic narrow can-
FlG. 15. — Larger river systems of the United States.
yons incised into the hard rocks to a depth of five
thousand or even six thousand feet.
North of the Interior Basin is the Columbia
River system, receiving the greater part of its
waters from regions which are arid or partly sub-
humid. The principal tributary of importance in
irrigation is the Snake River, which rises adjacent
to the Yellowstone National Park and flows through
WESTERN RIVERS. 6l
the lava fields of southern Idaho. In these it has
cut, for a considerable part of its course, deep, nar-
row canyons somewhat smaller than, but compa-
rable with, those of the Colorado River.
Below, or south of, the Columbia, are numerous
rivers, mostly short, flowing from the Cascade and
Coast ranges into the Pacific Ocean. The prin-
cipal river system of this group is the Sacramento,
which, with its equally important tributary, the
San Joaquin, drains the great valley of Califor-
nia, discharging into the Bay of San Francisco
and connecting with the Pacific Ocean through
the Golden Gate.
It is not the main or trunk streams above enu-
merated which are of chief importance in the de-
velopment of the arid country, but rather the
smaller tributaries, most of which cannot be ex-
hibited on the map of the United States unless it
is made of almost unwieldy size. The main streams
are too large to be controlled by ordinary hydraulic
works for irrigation or power, and in their lower
courses they have, as a rule, attained such gentle
grade or slope that they have little industrial value
except for navigation.
In the upper course, where the streams are small
and descend rapidly with falls and cascades, or
lower, where the swiftly flowing waters rush along
over beds which slope at the rate of ten to twenty
feet per mile of length, it is possible to erect struc-
tures by which power can be developed or the
62 IRRIGATION.
waters taken by gravity to the lower lying fertile
lands. Head works can be placed on the banks
of these streams, or dams built across their beds,
raising and controlling the waters.
PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS.
If the rivers coming from the mountains flowed
at a uniform rate month by month and year after
year, it would be a comparatively simple matter to
construct hydraulic works ; but this is not the case.
There are very few streams which do not fluctuate
widely in their flow, delivering during certain days
or weeks volumes of water many times the aver-
age flow, or falling in late autumn to a discharge
so small that the stream becomes almost worthless
for industrial purposes. Not only do the rivers
change from season to season, but in successive
years there may be a wide variation. Sometimes
for several years there may be apparently an in-
creasing volume of water and then a long period of
drought with diminished flow for nearly a decade.
It is this erratic character which makes difficult,
expensive, and sometimes profitless, the works for
utilizing the water resources.
In the humid East the variations in river flow,
while great, are not usually so extreme as those of
the arid region. The typical river in spring flood
increases to a volume several times that of the
ordinary flow, then gradually diminishes in dis-
charge, toward the time of summer drought, drop-
IRRIGATION.
PLATE VIII.
PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS. 63
ping to a third or a quarter or even less of the
average, to rise again as cold weather comes on.
In contrast to this may be taken, for example, the
Gila River of southern Arizona, — a stream of great
importance in the development of the rich land of
that territory, but one offering many difficulties
owing to its erratic character. Frequently its flow
for months at a time will practically cease, and
the water stand in pools along its channel. Sud-
denly a violent flood occurs, rising to a discharge
of ten thousand or more cubic feet per second,
but, in a day or two, the river drops to a small
stream, gradually diminishing until nearly dry.
Sometimes these floods follow one after another,
in rapid succession, washing down immense quan-
tities of gravel, sand, and clay, and piling these up
along the channel or overwhelming and washing
out the dams and head gates built for irrigating
purposes and the bridges, as shown on PI. VIII.
In sharp contrast to the Gila River of Arizona
may be cited the Deschutes River of central Ore-
gon. This, although within the borders of the
arid region, has a wonderfully uniform flow, not
varying in height more than a foot or two through-
out the year and from one year to another. The
cause of this evenness is due mainly to the fact
that the catchment area of the river is for the
most part covered with lava, the pervious rock
serving as a reservoir or series of regulating cham-
bers for the stream at the time of melting snow
64 IRRIGATION.
or after a storm. The excess water doubtless
percolates into the lava, to be delivered through
many tortuous channels into the stream at various
points along its course.
In order to illustrate the ordinary fluctuations
of a river of the arid regions there is given here-
with a diagram (Fig. 16) showing variations in
quantity of flow of the Rio Grande at Embudo,
New Mexico, for the years 1896, 1897, and l898.
This exhibits a great difference in volume of floods
during the three successive years. Beginning in
January, 1896, the flow was approximately 500 cu-
bic feet per second, this continuing with slight rise
during February, and on the last of March reach-
ing 2000 cubic feet per second. In April there
were fluctuations, and about the 7th of May the
flood culminated at 3000 feet, the discharge drop-
ping off during May and June to the ordinary
summer flow of about 200 second-feet, interrupted
occasionally, as shown by the diagram, by small
floods of short duration.
In 1897 the discharge in January and February
was less than in the preceding year, and the amount
gradually increased, culminating during the latter
part of May in a volume of 8745 second-feet,
nearly three times the size of the greatest flood of
the preceding years. During June the river con-
tinued high, with large flow, not reaching low water
until August. There was a second flood reaching
2000 second-feet in the middle of October, this
2,000
FlG. 16. — Diagram of daily discharge of Rio Grande at Embudo,
New Mexico, for 1896, 1897, and 1898.
66 IRRIGATION.
gradually decreasing toward winter. In 1898 there
were three well-marked floods. The first occurred
in the latter part of April, the water dropping
during May at a time when usually there is the
greatest discharge. In June there was another
flood, interrupted by a short decline, and in July
occurred the greatest flood of the year, this reach-
ing about 4500 second-feet. The amount rapidly
declined to the summer flow, and there were no
floods during the remainder of the year.
The average flow for the year 1896 was 645
second-feet; for 1897, 1497 second-feet; and for
1898, 1157 second-feet. In other words, during
1897 the river discharged more than twice as much
as in 1896. It is not unusual for a stream to deliver
two, three, or even four times as much in one year
as in the preceding or succeeding year. These
facts as to the quantity of water and the range
of fluctuations are essential in any discussion of
irrigation, and particularly of the extent to which
the arid lands can be reclaimed.
This diagram of the Rio Grande is typical of
drawings which could be made for most of the
rivers of the arid region. In nearly all cases they
have a well-marked period of flood from April to
June, during which time the greater part of the
water for the year flows away. This is the time
of planting and germinating seeds, and there is
usually water in abundance for thoroughly wetting
the ground. Later in the year, however, when the
FLUCTUATIONS OF FLOWS. 67
crops are beginning to mature, the available supply
for irrigation is greatly reduced, and it is no longer
possible to supply the large areas planted in the
spring.
In looking at this diagram the idea at once
occurs that it should be a simple matter to hold
over some of the excess water of the spring, dimin-
ishing the height of the floods, and to turn this
back into the streams to replenish, or fill up, the
depressions shown in the diagram ; in other words,
to regulate the discharge to a more uniform condi-
tion, changing the diagram from one of erratic
points to a uniform curve.
For comparison with other rivers, and especially
with eastern conditions, a diagram (Fig. 17) of the
flow of Susquehanna River at Harrisburg, Pennsyl-
vania, for the same years is given. This carries a
far greater volume of water, as indicated by the
figures on the side of the diagram. The most
striking feature is the large number of the floods,
the short period of duration of each of these, and
their irregularity as regards time of year. Most
of them occur in the early spring or late fall,
June, July, August, and September being times
of low water.
Measurements of many important streams of the
United States have been made, and diagrams simi-
lar to the above constructed, illustrating this varia-
tion in river flow. They are, for the most part,
similar to the figures given, but careful comparison
68
IRRIGATION.
FIG. 17. — Diagram of daily discharge of Susquehanna River at Harris-
burg, Pennsylvania, for 1896, 1897, and 1898.
CLIMATIC CYCLES. 69
brings out individual peculiarities of each river,
dependent upon topographic and climatic condi-
tions. The study of a series of such diagrams
brings out clearly the fact that in the flow of
streams, as in the quantity of rainfall, there are
often cycles of irregular periods during which the
quantity increases with more or less persistency,
and then decreases for a number of years in suc-
cession. The attempt has been made to ascertain
whether there is any definite periodicity for these
cycles, and some investigators have occasionally
succeeded in demonstrating, to their own satisfac-
tion at least, that there is a regularity, but unfortu-
nately no two students are as yet agreed upon the
length of time of these. The cycles, if they may
be so termed, are probably not coincident in dif-
ferent parts of the United States. The rivers of
California may be very low for a series of years,
while during the same period those of Texas or
the Atlantic coast may have more than a normal
discharge.
In what has been above stated, the assumption
has been made that there are no large lakes along
the course of the rivers under discussion. In vari-
ous parts of the United States, however, particu-
larly in glaciated portions embracing New England
and states adjacent, the courses of the streams
have been disturbed by the incursion of the ice
sheet and by the material dropped in its retreat.
The boulders, gravels, and clays, irregularly de-
70 IRRIGATION.
posited, have produced numerous lakes which serve
to retain, for a time at least, the precipitation
upon the surface, holding back the floods and al-
lowing the water to escape with comparative uni-
formity, thus giving rise to rivers of steady flow.
This condition is limited to a relatively small part
of the country, but the great development of water
resources which must take place within the arid
region will first be patterned largely after the
results attained by nature. The upper courses of
the streams must be blocked by suitably con-
structed dams, forming lakes to hold the floods
and to regulate the flow throughout the season
when water is needed.
The fluctuations which have taken place in the
volume of different rivers from season to season
and from year to year are believed to have a
certain range, which can be ascertained by meas-
urements carried on through a number of years in
succession. The results at present obtained often
appear to indicate that the rivers are steadily di-
minishing in volume, and the question is fre-
quently asked whether the rivers are not drying
up. It has been argued that, in the western
part of the country at least, there is a progres-
sive desiccation, and that, as time goes on, less
and less water will be available. From geological
evidence it is certain that in comparatively recent
times, as measured by the age of the rocks, the
climate of the West was far more humid. On the
PERMANENCE OF RIVERS. 71
other hand, records of weather conditions obtained
for various parts of the United States and for
European countries, some of these extending over
a period of one hundred years or more, lead us to
believe that the present climate is permanent as
regards historical periods. In other words, for the
few hundred or thousand years that men have
made observations or records, there has been no de-
cided and permanent change in climate ; although
for the millions of years for which geological data
are available, there are found to be decided dif-
ferences.
From these and other considerations it is safe
to assume, as in the case of the rainfall, that the
quantity of water in the rivers of the country is
not permanently increasing or diminishing. It
is evident, however, that modifications are taking
place in their behavior, especially as regards the
amount and duration of floods and of low water.
The changes introduced incident to civilization, —
the making of roads and trails, which act as con-
duits or ditches, the draining of swampy places,
the cutting of the trees, the burning of forests and
underbrush, — all exert a more or less direct in-
fluence upon the rapidity with which water runs
off the ground after a rain and finds its way into
the streams. Thus there can be no doubt that
springs and smaller creeks at least have been de-
stroyed, or their flow greatly modified.
/2 IRRIGATION.
SEEPAGE.
The streams within the arid regions of the
United States, having their sources amid the high,
rocky, or forest-clad slopes of the mountains, de-
scend rapidly toward the fertile plains, which often
stretch far out to the horizon. Their downward
course is seldom an uninterrupted one. Usually
at one point or another they meander for a time
through upper valleys or parks, whose summer
verdure is in striking contrast to the sunburned
plains beneath. Leaving these, the streams enter
rocky denies or narrow canyons, to again emerge
upon a narrow lower valley ; and, receiving tribu-
taries on the way, they finally pass through the
foothill regions and out upon the vast fertile plains.
At about this point a gradual transition takes
place in the character of the channel, which, from
a rocky, torrential, or gravelly stream-bed with
rapid fall, broadens into a shallow, shifting, sandy
channel, in which the stream, dividing and sub-
dividing in times of low water, finally, by imper-
ceptible degrees, loses itself. In times of flood
the water may fill the broad sandy waste, and after
a few days force its way far out to join some lake,
or finally reach some perennial stream making its
way to the ocean.
In its course the water of the stream may be
diverted at any point. It may be taken out in the
upper parks or valleys high among the mountain
SEEPAGE. 73
peaks, and used during the spring or summer to
increase the growth of the forage plants ; or it
may be utilized in the lower valleys among the
foothills, or out upon the margin of the plain, or
upon the lower plain itself. If the stream chan-
nel were like an iron pipe or conduit, in which the
water, once received, must pass along until dis-
charged into some branch or at the lower end, the
estimation of water supply would be comparatively
simple. It would be assumed that whatever water
came into the pipe at any point must come out at
some other ; or, in other words, that the quantity
to be dealt with would be constant; and our ac-
count books would balance. This, however, is not
the case in nature.
If among the mountains we measure all the vis-
ible affluents of a stream, add these together, and
then measure the volume of the main stream a
little distance below, we shall generally find that
the aggregate volume is greater than the sum of
the visible tributaries. Water has come in im-
perceptibly, this action continuing through a great
part of the year, — after the frost has left the
ground and until late summer. Going down-stream
to the edge of the plain, there will be found, how-
ever, a different condition of affairs. If at the
edge of the foothills we measure all of the creeks,
add the results together, and then measure the
main stream a few miles below, it will usually be
found that this latter volume is less than the sum
74 IRRIGATION.
of the various tributaries. This decrease will be
found to continue at a greater or less rate, with
perhaps an occasional increase.
This irregularity in the behavior of a stream,
increasing and decreasing without visible cause, is
explained by what is commonly known as seepage
or percolation. In the more elevated portions of
the basin, with cooler climates and larger water
supply, the rocks, more or less saturated by the
rains and melting snows, yield their waters to
the streams ; but in the lower and dryer part of
the basin, where the rocks or soils are loose or
unconsolidated, they receive and conduct away
some of the river water, until all may be taken,
transmitted laterally, and given out imperceptibly
to the dry air. Direct evaporation from the sur-
face of the flowing stream also aids seepage in
robbing the rivers in their lower courses.
Under natural conditions a. river gradually in-
creases in volume, both by tributary surface streams
and by percolation, to a certain point, and then grad-
ually loses some of its volume by imperceptible de-
grees. This point is usually at or near the lower
foothill region, and in a general way corresponds
with the place where, from slope of channel and
other features, canals and ditches can be most
economically constructed to carry water out to the
edge of the lower plain.
This point of maximum available flow is often
coincident with other favorable features, as regards
POINTS OF GREATEST FLOW. 75
both climate and soil. Being protected by the foot-
hills, winds are not so severe, and frosts do not
come so early in the fall nor linger so late in the
spring. This part of the river basin is thus pecul-
iarly favored for successful agriculture by irriga-
tion, and if physical conditions alone had been
considered, a concentration of efforts at such places
would have resulted in the largest and best utiliza-
tion of the public lands. The progress of settle-
ment has, however, not followed any systematic
course tending to make the largest amount of land
available for settlement ; and we now find that on
each stream the best lands and the best opportu-
nities for completely utilizing the water have some-
times been neglected through lack of knowledge
or experience on the part of pioneers.
A prospector, weary with the search for precious
minerals ; a cattleman, choosing a home ranch ; or
a pioneer farmer, seeking a location with ample
space for his growing family, has picked out what
seemed to him at the time the most desirable spot,
and, by his own efforts, or aided perhaps by neigh-
bors, has dug a small ditch where the ground was
most easily worked by simple farm tools. Above
or below, another ditch has been taken out by later
comers, attracted by the success of the first man,
and year by year, as more people settled along the
stream, new ditches have been dug and old ones
have been enlarged.
The older ditches have usually had an abundant
76 IRRIGATION.
supply, and their owners have become accustomed
to use water freely, saturating the ground and fill-
ing the subsoil. The excess water, slowly perco-
lating downward and outward, progresses toward
the lowest point, and finally reaches daylight on
the lowlands (PL IX). The rate of movement is
extremely slow, being usually only a few inches a
day. Weeks, months, or even years may be re-
quired for the passage of any particular drop of
water from the irrigated field through the ground
and out into the river bed, so that the increase of
stream flow may not be recognized for several
years after irrigation has been introduced. When
once an extensive area has been thoroughly satu-
rated, the seepage may continue for a considerable
period. This effect of irrigation in increasing the
natural seepage is now well recognized, and it is
often esteemed a benefit to lower portions of a
valley to have water applied to lands higher up,
since by so doing the amount available in the latter
part of the crop season for the lower land is in-
creased. On the other hand, as discussed on page
226, the seepage may grow to such an extent as to
become a source of annoyance and even of injury.
To illustrate the effect of seepage, an example
may be taken of a typical catchment basin, in which
there is an upper valley, a long middle or lower
valley, and beyond this the broad expanse of margin
of the plain. The inhabitants of the highest val-
ley, by diverting the spring floods to the fields, and
IRRIGATION.
PLATE IX.
A.
SEEPAGE WATER APPEARING ON LAND FORMERLY DRY,
NEAR RINCON, CALIFORNIA.
B. DREDGE CUTTING CANAL TO RECEIVE SEEPAGE WATER.
EFFECTS OF SEEPAGE. 77
distributing these over pasture or hay lands, put
to beneficial use waters which otherwise would be
wasted, since at that season there is an excess all
along, the stream. A part of the water thus used
percolates back to the stream in the lower end of
this valley, and adds to the volume available for the
irrigators in the next or middle valley. If, how-
ever, this utilization in the highest valley continues
throughout the summer, when the heat and conse-
quent evaporation are greater, it may be possible to
divert all of the flowing water from the stream, by
spreading it upon the fields, and leave the channel
completely dry save for the seepage, which con-
tinues to flow. Under this condition the inhabitants
of the middle valley are deprived of the natural
flow of the stream, and have only the seepage
water, instead of the ordinary discharge increased
by seepage.
There is thus a time of year, shortly after the
occurrence of the spring floods, when continued
utilization of the waters in the highest valley be-
comes, not a benefit, but an injury, to the people
below. The same thing is true of the utilization
of the water in the middle valley. The extrava-
gant use of the water early in the year in the
middle valley may be of advantage to those below,
in adding to the summer flow through seepage ;
but further utilization, in taking all of the water
out of the stream, interferes greatly with the supply
at points farther down-stream.
78 IRRIGATION.
There is for every point along a river of any
considerable length a time when the diversion of
the water at points far above becomes, not a bless-
ing, but a curse. This time varies, not only, with
the amount of water in the stream and the amount
taken out, but also with the weather conditions,
a dry year resulting in diminished seepage and
earlier passing of the critical point, and a cool
year in retardation of the time when diversions
above become an injury. This date, as a rule,
gradually grows earlier and earlier as years go by,
for with the usual extension of irrigating systems
comes greater economy in the use of water, and
with greater economy must be less seepage. With
increased irrigated area a smaller amount of water
is put upon each acre of the fields, and finally only
enough to supply the needs of the plants. When
this point is reached, there should be theoretically
no artificial seepage, and then no benefit to points
below. This, however, is an extreme condition
rarely realized.
The necessity of ascertaining, not only the water
supply, but also the modifications due to artificial
diversion of the -water, is emphasized by considera-
tion of the prevalent customs and usual legislation
regarding water rights. As a rule, throughout the
arid region, priority of utilization carries with it
the first right to continued employment. The man
who along the course of the stream first took out
water and cultivated a given piece of land, is, by
SEEPAGE AFFECTING PRIORITIES. 79
custom and law (see p. 291), entitled to take out the
same quantity of water to this land, regardless of
his neighbors. The man who came second, whether
by a day or by a generation, has a secondary right,
and can use forever the amount of water originally
diverted and put upon the cultivated soil, provided
there is sufficient to supply the first comer. The
man who is third in point of time can utilize his share
only after the first and second men have had their
prior claims satisfied ; and so on down the list, the
last comer being compelled, if necessary, to leave
the water untouched until all have had the exact
quantity legally claimed. By increasing or dimin-
ishing the flow of a stream at any point through
seepage the values of farm lands may be greatly
affected.
IMPORTANCE OF STREAM MEASUREMENT.
The above discussion of one of the problems of
water distribution illustrates the difficulties in the
way of the best development of the arid lands,
and shows the necessity of thorough and accurate
knowledge of all of the conditions. The matter is
further complicated by the manner in which politi-
cal divisions have been drawn, regardless of nat-
ural boundaries. In nearly all cases the more
important streams flow through several counties,
each of which has its own peculiar custom in re-
gard to the distribution of water, and in which the
inhabitants and officials are somewhat jealous of
80 IRRIGATION.
other counties, or at least are not inclined to work
in harmony with them. The most difficult case,
however, is where state lines intersect drainage
basins, as it is then almost impossible to secure
any consideration by one state of the rights of
people lower down the stream in another state.
Each year these interstate questions are becoming
more and more complicated, and the demand for
laws or regulations which shall impartially settle
disputes is more urgent.
There are also important streams, such as the
Rio Grande, which flow along or across the
borders of the republic and give rise to interna-
tional complications similar in many respects to
the interstate questions. While in each case there
is necessity for accurate and detailed information
regarding local conditions, yet it should be possi-
ble to determine some broad principles applicable
to all. A thorough knowledge of the water sup-
ply, its fluctuations and limitations, is therefore
essential, in whatever aspect the future of the
public lands may be considered ; but the difficulty
of obtaining systematic knowledge can best be ap-
preciated when the vast extent and wide distri-
bution of the national domain are considered.
The principal streams of the arid region have
been measured by the Division of Hydrography
of the United States Geological Survey as part of
its investigation of the extent to which the arid
lands can be reclaimed by irrigation. This forms
IMPORTANCE OF STREAM MEASUREMENTS. 8 1
a portion of the general study of the water re-
sources of the United States, and the oppor-
tunities for utilizing these in power and other
industrial purposes, as well as in agriculture. The
flow of rivers has been systematically observed in
various sections of the United States, to obtain
facts for use in considerations of problems relating
in the East mainly to power development, and in
the West to irrigation.
By far the greater portion of the vacant public
lands — over 95 per cent — is classed as arid or
semiarid in character and, as shown in earlier
pages, depends for its future value not so much
upon altitude, mineral contents, or geological struc-
ture as upon the presence or absence of water.
Thus it is that the question of water supply, its
quantity, quality, and availability, is one upon which
turns the future of the national domain. When
the essential facts concerning the water are clearly
known, it will be possible to determine upon the
best legislation for the reclamation of portions of
this vast area, and the dedication of other portions
to various purposes, such as grazing and woodland.
It is a fact now generally recognized that, owing
to the scarcity of water, only a small portion of
the public domain can be reclaimed for agriculture ;
but this amount, though small when compared with
the whole area, is in the aggregate larger than the
territorial extent of some of the states, and will
sustain a population of millions. After all of the
82 IRRIGATION.
land that the water will cover has been utilized for
agriculture by means of irrigation, there will still
remain hundreds of millions of acres of rich land
suitable for grazing and for the growth of forest
products.
METHODS OF STREAM MEASUREMENT.
The operations of measuring the volume of a
flowing stream, although not complicated, possess
an element of mystery to the average citizen,
largely because he has not been accustomed to
consider fluctuating quantities. It is possible to
form a very definite conception of the amount of
water standing in a pond or reservoir, but in the
case of a stream the quantities considered are of
water in motion, and therefore another and some-
what novel element enters, that of time. The
statement of the quantity of water in a stream is
dependent upon the time considered, and therefore
it is necessary as a first step to take some unit.
This is usually the second, although the minute is
occasionally used.
In the United States the unit of quantity in
water measurement is the cubic foot, although the
gallon is largely employed by engineers and others
having to do with city waterworks. The objections
to the gallon are that there are several gallons of
different size, and that the quantity is so small that
figures of stream flow run up into inconveniently
large numbers. The gallon in customary use is
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT. 83
equivalent to 231 cubic inches, or 7.48 gallons
make i cubic foot.
There are other units frequently employed in
statements of the amount of water, the most im-
portant being the acre-foot. This is used particu-
larly with reference to waters stored in reservoirs.
An acre-foot of water is the amount which would
cover one acre, or 43,560 square feet, to a depth of
one foot; or, in short, 43, 560 cubic feet, or 325,851
gallons. One cubic foot per second flowing for
twenty-four hours will cover an acre to a depth of
1.98 feet. It is customary in round numbers to
state that a cubic foot per second for a day is equiv-
alent to 2 acre-feet. The contents of reservoirs
built for city water supply are usually stated in
millions of gallons, while those for irrigation are
almost always given in acre-feet. It is convenient
to remember that 1,000,000 gallons equal a trifle
more than 3 acre-feet (3.069).
If we imagine a small stream filling a rectangu-
lar conduit i foot wide and i foot deep, we have a
stream whose sectional area is i square foot.
The volume of this stream will vary in proportion
to the speed with which the water flows through
the conduit. This speed is most conveniently ex-
pressed, as above noted, in the rate per second, the
foot being used as the unit of distance. If, for ex-
ample, the water is moving at the speed of i foot
per second, it follows that there is a flow of a vol-
ume of i cubic, foot per second. If the water is
84 IRRIGATION.
moving at a higher speed, as for example 5 linear
feet per second, the volume will be 5 cubic feet per
second. In the same way, if the conduit is 5 feet
wide and 20 feet deep, the areal section is 100
square feet, and if the average flow is 2 feet
per second, the total discharge will be 200 cubic
feet per second. This expression, " cubic feet per
second," is frequently abbreviated to " second-feet."
From what has been above stated, it is apparent
that the measurement of the flow of a stream con-
sists in obtaining the width, depth, and velocity.
If these were perfectly definite or fixed quantities,
the operation would be extremely simple ; but as
streams occur in nature, these quantities are not
always precisely bounded, and considerable judg-
ment is required in assuming the limiting points.
For example, the measurement of the width of a
stream necessitates an assumption as to the actual
point or line where the moving water ends and the
bank begins. As the natural banks are always
irregular, the width of a stream may vary consider-
ably in going short distances. The shores are
usually shallow, and there are often little areas of
stagnant water, or even returning currents creeping
along the shore, so that it becomes necessary to
decide from inspection where the shores may be
said to begin and end at the particular locality
where the measurements are made.
The depth of a stream is also a variable quan-
tity. Outward from the shore the depth gradually
DEPTH AND WIDTH OF STREAM. 85
increases toward the centre, and then shallows
toward the farther bank. Often there are bars
or deposits of sand, gravel, and boulders, making
the bottom irregular, so that a sounding pole or
line may find a place on top of a stone or by its
side, making considerable difference in the reading
of the depth. It is thus necessary to make a num-
ber of measurements of depth by soundings across
the stream, taking these at intervals of i foot, 5
feet, 10 feet, or more, according to the width of the
stream and the irregularity of the bottom.
If the water were perfectly still it would be an
easy matter to read the distance from the bottom
to the top, but with most streams there are small
ripples or waves produced by the wind and by the
flowing water, so that in ascertaining the depth
allowance must be made for the wave motion as
the water rises and falls on the measuring pole.
In very careful determinations there are also found
to be fluctuations of the height of the water due to
the rhythmic flow, the surface slowly rising and fall-
ing through periods of from one to two minutes or
more. This slow oscillation can be noted by any
simple device which stills the waves ; for example,
by observing the water in a pipe whose lower part
beneath the water is perforated.
These measurements of the width and of the
depth of a stream can be readily made by meas-
uring lines or sticks ; but the third factor — that of
speed — requires additional apparatus, as the ele-
86 IRRIGATION.
ment of time must be noted. The stream does not
move like a train of cars or a rigid bar, all portions
travelling at the same rate. On the contrary, each
particle moves along a path of its own, not neces-
sarily parallel with the banks, but usually with
more or less circular or gyratory motion. In the
centre of the stream, or where the water is deep-
est, it can be readily seen by the eye that the water
is moving faster than near the shore. The place
of greatest motion is about one-third of the distance
beneath the surface, this being the locality where
the water is least impede'd by friction. Toward
the sides and bottom the rate of flow gradually
diminishes, the velocity being governed by the
roughness of the surface, boulders or projections
causing eddies and setting up disturbances which
retard the forward motion.
Floats.
The simplest way of obtaining the rate of flow
is by means of small objects floating upon the sur-
face. For example, a path 100 feet in length can
be laid off along the side of a stream, each end of
the path or course being marked by a stake. A
chip can be thrown into the stream above the
upper stake and the exact second noted when it
passes this point, and also when it passes the lower
point 100 feet below. If 20 seconds were required,
the velocity of the chip was 5 feet per second.
If the first chip or float followed near the centre
FLOAT MEASUREMENTS. 87
of the stream, other floats can be tossed in so that
they will travel in lines intermediate between the
centre and the banks. These will move at the rate
of 4 feet a second, 3 feet a second, and so on. If
they are well distributed across the stream, the
average will be approximately the surface flow,
which for convenience may be taken as 3 feet per
second.
The entire stream is not flowing as rapidly as
the surface, and it is usually assumed that the
water as a whole moves at about 0.9 the average
surface velocity. It is necessary therefore to mul-
tiply the 3 feet per second surface flow by 0.9, giv-
ing an average rate of flow for the whole stream
of 2.7 feet per second. If we have found that the
width is 20 feet, the average depth 4 feet, the area
of cross-section is 80 square feet, and the rate of
flow, 2.7 feet per second, gives a volume of 216
second-feet.
In making this simple computation it is usually
desirable to take the precaution of dividing the
stream, if of considerable width, into several sec-
tions lying side by side, and considering each of
these as independent, for the reason that the sides
of the stream, where the depth is less, have the
least velocity, and the centre of the stream usually
has the greatest velocity. For accuracy in com-
putation the shallowest cross-section, say 10 feet in
width, should be multiplied by its velocity, and the
deepest cross-section, also of a uniform width of
88
IRRIGATION.
10 feet, multiplied by its velocity ; and so on with
each portion of the stream. This is because of
the fact that the total area multiplied by the
FlG. 18. — Double or submerged float.
average velocity does not give the same result
as obtained by the method just described.
This method of obtaining the discharge of a
stream by means of floats can be employed by any
SUBMERGED FLOATS. 89
person of fair skill and judgment, and will yield
results suitable for most practical purposes. It is
susceptible of refinement in many ways. For ex-
ample, if the stream is wide, stakes can be set on
opposite sides of the bank in order to locate accu-
rately the course of 100 or 200 feet. The surface
floats can be replaced by rods or submerged floats ;
that is, poles or tubes of tin or other metal can be
prepared and weighted at the bottom in such a
way as to stand vertical in the water, just clearing
the bed of the stream and with the top appearing
above the surface. Such floats give very nearly
the average velocity of the water of that particular
section. Submerged floats can also be used, these
being small closed vessels, usually short cylinders
so loaded as to float at a given depth, and connected
by means of a small cord or wire to a marker float-
ing on the surface, as shown in Fig. 18. It is
difficult to determine the exact position of sub-
merged floats above the bottom and to make allow-
ance for the influence of the wire and the marker.
Current Meters.
The difficulty and even impossibility at times of
using floats, and the various uncertainties connected
with them, have led to the adoption of other devices
for obtaining the velocity by less direct methods.
The most common of these is the current meter,
an instrument which consists essentially of a small
mill or wheel held at a given point in the water
90 IRRIGATION.
and caused to revolve by the stream, the speed of
revolution -being dependent upon the speed of the
water. This rate of revolution may be noted in a
number of ways, either by means of small wheels
connected with a dial, or by a device making a rap
or click, or by some form of electric " make and
break." The latter is the preferred form, since the
meter can then be used in a great variety of ways
and at a considerable distance from the operator.
The accompanying view (PI. X, A) is of an
electric current meter, one which may be con-
sidered as illustrative of many different forms.
On the extreme right is shown a series of coni-
cal cups arranged on the periphery of a wheel in
such a way that the water striking the open face
of the cups causes them to revolve. Each revolu-
tion " makes and breaks" the electric current pass-
ing through the spindle or bearing of the wheel.
This electric impulse is transmitted through a
double insulated conducting cord, the battery sup-
plying the impulse being connected at the far end
of this cord. In the view the battery box is open,
and the small bisulphate of mercury cell is shown
taken out of the box and with the zinc pole
removed.
Behind or at the left of the revolving wheel or
head of the meter is seen the device for supporting
it with a lead weight below, and beyond this the
tail of the meter, consisting of two sheets of metal
at right angles to each other, intended to hold the
1KKIUAHUN.
A. ELECTRIC CURRENT METER, CONDUCTING CORD, AND
BATTERY.
Is J
METHOD OF USING ELECTRIC CURRENT METER FROM
SUSPENDED CAR.
ELECTRIC CURRENT METER. 91
head of the meter horizontally in the flowing water.
When the meter is lowered into the stream by
means of the conducting cord, the head begins to
revolve, and each revolution opens and closes the
electric circuit, this fact being made known by a
little buzzer or sounder about the size of a watch
attached to the back of the battery box. The
engineer or hydrographer using the instrument can
put this battery box, with sounder attached, in his
pocket, and can hear the click, click, click, as the
meter wheel revolves under the water. By holding
his watch in his hand and noting the number of
clicks during, say, 50 seconds, he can readily
obtain the number of revolutions per second.
For example, if he counts 100 clicks in 50 seconds,
the meter head is obviously revolving at the rate
of two per second. Referring to the table con-
structed for the purpose, he notes that two revolu-
tions per second are equivalent to a speed of 5 feet
per second, and thus he obtains at once the speed
of the water at the particular point where the meter
is placed.
In using a current meter the chief operation
consists of placing the meter at a sufficient num-
ber of points across the stream, and from the sur-
face to the bottom, so as to obtain a full knowledge
of the rate of flow of each portion of the current.
In rivers and creeks of ordinary size it is usually
sufficient to make observations at intervals of, say,
10 or 20 feet horizontally, so that there will be from
92 IRRIGATION.
eight to sixteen localities of measurement across the
stream. The velocity is usually found to vary but
little from one of these localities to another, unless
there are obstructions, such as large rocks or snags.
In deep streams it is necessary at each of these
localities across the section to observe the velocity
just below the surface and at intervals of from
2 to 5 feet to the bottom. In very shallow streams
usually only a single measurement at each point
across the stream can be made, as the meter requires
some space in order to be submerged and not strike
the stones on the bottom.
When these observations have been made at
evenly distributed points in the vertical, the aver-
age of them may be taken as the velocity at this
locality, or the figures can be plotted graphically
and the average velocity obtained by measurement
of the drawings. If the localities of measurement
of speed are taken at intervals of, say, 10 or 20
feet across the river, the average depth of each of
these portions of the stream should be multiplied
into the width and into the average velocity ; the
flow of each portion of the stream being thus sepa-
rately ascertained, the total will give the complete
discharge.
In order to use the current meter successfully,
it is necessary to be able to reach all parts of the
cross-section. This can be done by a plank laid
across a narrow brook, or by a bridge, if favorably
located, across the larger stream. Where there are
USING CURRENT METER. 93
no bridges, boats are occasionally used, although in
flood times these are often dangerous. A device
which is largely used consists of a stout iron or
steel cable stretched across the stream at a con-
venient place and suspended from this a box, or car
(PL X, B), large enough for the hydrographer to
sit or stand in while using the meter. In this box,
out of the reach of the floods, the hydrographer can
propel himself from side to side and can lower his
meter to any desired depth beneath the surface.
The accompanying illustration (Fig. 19) has been
prepared to illustrate the operations of measure-
ment of velocity by this method. The drawing
represents a river flowing toward the reader, and
ending abruptly, as though cut off to give a section
showing the surface and bottom of the stream.
Across the river at this point is stretched a steel
cable suspended from posts, each end of the cable
being carried over the top of the post and continued
to an anchorage buried deeply in the soil. The
cable is drawn tight by means of a turnbuckle be-
tween the anchorage and the supporting post. On
this cable a small car is hung by means of two
pulleys, which allow easy motion forward and back.
Beside the cable, or immediately above it, is a small
wire carrying at intervals of ten feet a series of tags
marked ten, twenty, thirty, etc. ; these serve to give
the distance from some fixed point on the shore.'
On the left side of the view on the bank of the
river, is shown a stick of timber inclined at about
94
IRRIGATION.
the slope of the shore. This has been marked to
vertical feet and tenths, and is the gage upon which
record of the daily height of water is kept.
The curved, dotted lines of the figure are in-
tended to show points of equal velocity ; the points
forming an oval-shaped figure in the centre of a
section of the stream are those having the same
speed, this being greater than that shown by the
FlG. 19. — Method of measuring a river from a car suspended from
a steel cable.
curved line which surrounds it ; and this in turn
having greater speed than the points lying outside
of it, and so on, the speed of the water decreasing
from a point beneath the centre out toward the
banks. The bottom being irregular, there is shown
on the right-hand side a portion of the stream where
the velocity increases somewhat and again dimin-
ishes toward the shore.
The vertical lines on the section divide the river
into compartments ten feet in width, these being
located by means of the tagged wire. The depth
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XI,
A. SUPPORTS FOR SUSPENDED CAR.
B. METHOD OF USING METER FROM BOAT.
MEASURING A RIVER. 95
of each of these compartments is ascertained by
sounding, by means of a cord and weight, or by a
stick or pole. The velocity is also measured near
the centre, this being taken as the average for the
whole compartment. The velocity thus obtained
by means of the current meter and computed in
feet per second is multiplied by the average depth
of the compartment and by its width, the result
being the discharge in cubic feet per second. The
sum of all the measurements gives the total flow of
the stream.
The methods of using the meter, or rather places
at which it is held in the cross-section, vary some-
what according to the nature of the stream to be
measured. In an artificial channel of regular size,
particularly in a wooden or masonry flume or
conduit with flat bottom and straight sides, there
is usually less variation in the velocity of different
portions of the section. Thus, the number of ob-
servations with the meter may frequently be reduced
without decreasing the accuracy of the work. In
the accompanying figure (20) is shown the cross-
section of a wooden flume, this being considered as
divided into four portions or compartments. In
that on the left-hand side, numbered i, dotted
lines and arrows have been drawn to indicate one
of the methods of using a current meter. Starting
at the top, the meter is lowered slowly along the
side of the flume to the bottom, then carried diago-
nally upward to the top, then vertically downward
96
IRRIGATION.
to the bottom and diagonally across to the point of
beginning. The instrument is moved with a slow,
steady motion. The number of seconds required
to complete this circuit is usually from fifty to
seventy-five, record of these being kept by a stop-
watch, and the number of revolutions of the meter
being counted. This process and its modifications
are sometimes known as measurement by integra-
tion, it being assumed that the average velocity of
the water is obtained by the meter as it is moved
from place to place.
FlG. 20. — Section of flume illustrating methods of measurement.
In the division numbered 2 the course of the
meter is indicated as being moved slowly from the
top to the bottom, thus integrating the velocity
through the centre of the section, it being consid-
ered that at a distance from the side of the flume
a fairly uniform motion of the water takes place.
A third method of obtaining the velocity is that
shown in the division marked 3, where the meter
is held steadily for fifty or one hundred seconds
WEIR MEASUREMENTS. 97
f
at the point of mean velocity, this being approxi-
mately three-fifths of the depth below the surface.
The speed at this point has been found by experi-
ment to be usually equal to the average for the
entire division or compartment.
It is usually preferable in streams with rough
sides and bottom to make observations of velocity at
various points across the section and near the top
and bottom, as it is not safe to rely upon the water
following any arbitrary rule deduced from other
streams. There are occasionally pools of stagnant
water near the edges or in deep holes, and these
can be discovered only by a well-distributed series
of velocity measurements at definite points.
Weirs.
The methods above described are what may be
termed direct forms of measurement, since they
involve ascertaining the simple elements of width,
depth, and velocity. There are, however, other
methods which arrive at the total flow by the ap-
plication of principles and formulae derived from
experiments. In these methods the velocity of
water is estimated as it passes over or through some
regularly formed channel or aperture ; for example,
over the crest of a dam or through openings cut
in it. A dam, whether in a large or small stream,
so constructed that the water passes over it or
through a regular section, usually with decided
fall, is termed a weir. The weir may be totally
H
98 IRRIGATION.
submerged or its sides or ends may project above
the water, narrowing the channel. The term is
applied, on the one extreme, to the great masonry
structures built across large rivers for the purpose
of regulating the channel, and on the other ex-
treme, to a board placed across a small brook or
ditch, with a notch or opening cut in it, to per-
mit the regular flow of water for the purpose of
measurement.
Elaborate and careful experiments have been
made with weirs of various forms and dimensions,
to determine the rule or law of velocity of the water
flowing through openings of given size and shape.
From the facts thus obtained formulae have been
derived which are applied to streams of consider-
able size, as well as those comparable to the ones
upon which the experiments were tried. The
accompanying illustrations show two classes of
weirs. The first (PI. XII, A) is across Genesee
River, New York, taking the full flow of that
stream in high and low water. The second
(PL XII, B) is on Cottonwood Creek, in Utah.
The essentials of a weir are that the water shall
be partially stilled' and flow gently with uniform
current toward the edge. Above this edge there
should be deep water, so that the currents may
approach without disturbance. On the lower side
there should also be a free fall. There are a num-
ber of technical requirements to be observed ac-
cording to the formula to be applied ; that is to say,
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XII.
A. WEIR ON GENESEE RIVER, NEW YORK.
B. WEIR ON COTTONWOOD CREEK, UTAH.
ESSENTIALS OF A WEIR.
99
for a sharp-crested or flat-crested weir or for one
with end contractions, certain precautions are to
be observed. In order to secure accuracy, atten-
tion must be given to all of these details, that they
may conform to the conditions of the original ex-
periments from which the rules were derived.
The accompanying figure (21) shows a small weir
placed in a running stream, ponding water some-
FlG. 21. — Ordinary weir in a small stream.
what by contracting the channel. As the water
approaches the sharp edge over which it falls
the stream contracts, so that to ascertain the exact
height of the water above the horizontal crest
over which it falls it is necessary to drive down
a peg three or four feet back from the crest to the
exact level with the edge of the weir, and to meas-
ure from this peg up to the water surface. This
100 IRRIGATION.
gives the height of the water on the weir; the
depth of water above the weir should be at least
twice this height. The weir should be placed at
right angles to the current of the stream, and the
water should be brought as nearly as possible to
rest, passing with free fall over the crest, and with
a width at least three times the depth. By care-
fully observing certain precautions, and applying
suitable formulae or rules derived from experiment,
it is possible to ascertain the flow of a stream with
an error of only I or 2 per cent. Computations of
discharge can be avoided by using tables prepared
for weirs of different size and form, a number of
these having been printed as standard books of
reference for the use of engineers.
Many of the more important rivers of the United
States are used, in part at least, for water power,
and dams have been built across them, raising the
water and ponding it for many miles. Occasion-
ally the dam of one water power is placed near the
upper end of the slack water caused by the dam
below, and thus the free flow of the river is im-
peded and artificial conditions are created, so that
ordinary current meter or float measurements are
impossible. In such cases the discharge of the
stream can be ascertained only by using the dam as
a measuring weir and by various indirect methods.
It is necessary to know the amount which passes
through the water wheels, out of the waste ways,
as well as that flowing over the crest of the dam
MILL DAMS AS WEIRS. 101
in times of flood. To do this requires a large
number of observations. The amount of water
used by each wheel must be known, and the num-
ber of hours during which the wheel is operated
each day, the wheel being considered as a water
meter. The sum of the quantities used by the
wheels can thus be obtained, and to this must be
added the amount flowing over or through the dam.
Each of the openings must be measured, and the
amount which escapes over the top computed by
considering the dam as a weir. The matter is
further complicated by the fact that many mill
dams, especially those built of logs or timber, are
full of small leaks, permitting a quantity of water
to pass through or beneath them, the amount of
which can only be roughly approximated or guessed.
It is possible, however, by these somewhat round-
about methods to obtain a very fair estimate of
the discharge of a river, — one which is of value
in all practical considerations.
CHAPTER IV.
CONVEYING AND DIVIDING STREAM WATERS.
DIVERSION FROM THE STREAM.
THE greater part of the water used in irrigation
is taken from the river or creek by natural flow or
gravity. The cost of lifting or pumping water is
usually too great to be profitable for the produc-
tion of ordinary crops, and therefore most irriga-
tion systems must be planned with reference to
the relative altitude of the lands to be irrigated
and the source of water.
The streams issuing from the high mountains
descend with rapid fall toward the lower valleys,
where, as a rule, the slope is less and the water
moves more slowly. The lands to be irrigated in
the valley are, for the most part, along the river,
but at a higher elevation than the stream which
they border. They are, however, in part at least,
lower than the water farther up-stream ; and if
a canal or ditch is begun on a gentle grade above
the head of the valley and carried out along the
banks of the stream, it can be kept at a higher
elevation than some of the valley land. In the
102
BEGINNING A DITCH. 103
narrow gorge or canyon above the valley the stream
may be falling at a rate of 10 feet per mile. Water
will flow in the ditch if a fall of only 2 feet per
mile is given to it. Starting on this grade from
the river, at the end of the first mile the water in
the ditch will be 8 feet above that in the river,
and at the end of the tenth mile will be 80 feet
higher, and will thus cover all land which is less
than 80 feet in altitude above the stream at this
locality.
In the accompanying diagram (Fig. 22) the
letter A is at the head of the valley and B at the
lower end. The river, E, flows with winding course
from A to B, with agricultural land on each side
sloping gently toward the river. Some point, C,
back from the river can be found which is lower
than A, and a canal line on a gently descending
grade, less than that of the river, can be taken out
from A and beyond C, following the contours of
the side slopes. The land between the canal and
the river is lower than the canal, and lateral or
distributing ditches can be taken out toward the
stream. These can be constructed directly down-
hill, or, if the slopes are too steep, can be carried
off diagonally.
In planning an irrigation system, it is usual to
begin at the highest point of the tract of land or
valley to be irrigated, and run a trial line on a
slightly ascending grade (a foot, more or less, to
a mile), following this line as it meanders in and
104
IRRIGATION.
out along the slopes, and continuing it through
the upper end of the valley and into the canyon
from which the stream issues, until the trial line
finally reaches water level. Frequently it happens
FIG. 22. — Diagram showing method of diverting a canal from a river.
that such a line will wind around bluffs and rocky
places where ditch construction may be impossible.
In such a case a higher or lower line must be
taken. If lower, it is apparent that the higher
points in the valley cannot be reached by the
water, and it may be necessary to leave unirrigated
above the ditch a considerable portion of the fer-
LAYING OUT A DITCH. 105
tile land. Thus it sometimes occurs that, even
though there is an abundance of water, some of
the good land must be left unwatered, as it is im-
practicable to build a ditch which will reach it.
In the simplest case of laying out a ditch, a
farmer takes a straight-edge or board 16.5 feet, or
a rod, in length, and tacks on one end of this a pro-
jecting block or peg one-half of an inch or an inch
in height. When this board is placed horizontally,
the lower projecting point will give a fall of one-
half of an inch or an inch to the rod. Beginning
at a given point, one end of the straight-edge is
placed on a stake driven flush with the surface
of the ground, and the other end, having the pro-
jection upon it, is swung around until it strikes the
surface. A stake is driven in here, this stake be-
ing lower than the first by an amount equal to the
height of the projection or peg. The operation may
be reversed if the laying out of the ditch is begun
at the lower end. In. this way stakes are driven into
the ground at intervals of a rod, marking out the
course of the ditch upon a slightly ascending or
descending grade according as the work is begun
from the lower or upper end.
The accompanying figure (23) shows an effec-
tive form of levelling device used by irrigators. It
consists of a straight-edge or board, from the ends
of which pieces extend diagonally upward to form
a support for a plumb bob. This is adjusted so
that when the straight-edge is horizontal the plumb
io6
IRRIGATION.
bob will fall opposite a fixed point. The same
results can be obtained by using a carpenter's level,
but the device shown can be constructed by any
person of ordinary skill, and will suffice for laying
out ditches for irrigation or drainage.
The ditch having been staked out in the manner
above described, or better by means of surveying
instruments, a furrow is ploughed along the course,
FlG. 23. — Levelling device for laying out ditches.
and the earth thrown out by shovels or scrapers
(PL XIII, A). Near the upper end of the ditch it
may be necessary to blast away the rocks, and at
intervals along its course depressions must some-
times be crossed by means of wooden flumes. As
far as possible, however, ditches are carried up
into and around depressions in the surface of the
ground, in order to avoid building these wooden
structures, since they decay rapidly and are sources
of considerable expense. (See Figs. 36 and 48.)
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XIII.
A. DIGGING A DITCH FROM A RIVER.
t*tii3
B. THE FINISHED DITCH.
FARMERS' ASSOCIATIONS. IO/
For the purpose of digging large ditches or
canals, a number of farmers usually combine, form-
ing an association which may be incorporated.
Ownership is usually based upon the proportion of
labor contributed by each member, and this in turn
is determined largely by the amount of land owned
and to be irrigated by each person. These asso-
ciations may be simply partnerships without any
written agreement, or may be formally organized
with constitution and by-laws, and be incorporated
under the laws of the state. Frequently stock is
issued, each share entitling the owner to receive a
certain amount of water from the ditch, or a defi-
nite proportion of the whole amount available at
any particular time. Sometimes these shares spec-
ify the time of day, so that one man receives the
entire flow of the main ditch or a lateral from six
o'clock in the morning until noon, and his neighbor,
being entitled to less water, receives the entire flow
from noon until two in the afternoon ; and so on
throughout the day and night.
These associations or corporations elect their
own officers and manage their affairs in the same
manner as any other business concern. The most
important official, however, after the treasurer, is
the person charged with the management of the
canal. He is usually known as the "watermaster "
or " ditch-rider "; or, in Spanish-speaking com-
munities, as majordomo or zanjero, from the word
"zanja" (usually called sankha), the Spanish term
108 IRRIGATION.
for irrigation ditch. It is his business to see that
all stockholders or owners receive a fair amount of
water, using various means for measuring or divid-
ing it, as described on a later page.
The greater number of ditches and canals now
in use within the arid region have been built by
individuals and associations of this character. In
a relatively few instances large works have been
constructed by corporations issuing stock to per-
sons who were not landowners, and borrowing
additional capital upon bonds. Several canals have
been constructed in this way, but as a rule these
have not been financially successful, and develop-
ment is not continuing along this line.
DISTRIBUTION OF FLOW.
The pioneer, coming to a new portion of the
arid country, first sought a stream from which
water could be diverted upon arable land. As a
rule he laid claim to the whole flow and built a
ditch, small at first, taking only enough water to
supply the land which he could cultivate during
the first year or two. From time to time, as more
land was brought under irrigation, the ditch was
enlarged by being widened and deepened, more
and more water being taken from the stream as
needed. In the case of associations of farmers,
the same course has usually been followed, the
ditch or canal being at first small and built in the
quickest and cheapest manner possible, and then
INCREASING DEMANDS FOR WATER. 109
gradually enlarged to take a greater and greater
proportion of the water in the river.
Soon after the first settler or association took
out water in a ditch, others would begin similar
works a few miles above or below the first, each
in turn generally claiming all the water to be had at
the particular point where the head works were
located. If the stream is of considerable volume,
sufficient to fill all of the ditches, no difficulties
arise ; but sooner or later the increasing size and
number of ditches and canals result in diminish-
ing the flow in the river to such an extent that it
becomes dry, and water does not reach the ditches
farthest down-stream. This scarcity of water first
becomes apparent during the latter part of the
crop season, in July and August, when the streams,
as shown by Fig. 16 (p. 65), are lowest and the
need of water is greatest.
It usually happens that the ditches lowest down-
stream are those which were built first, and which
under the customs prevalent in arid regions are
entitled to priority of right to the use of the water.
The farmers under these lower ditches, seeing their
crops wither and orchards which have reached
maturity die for lack of water, are tempted to take
desperate measures, and going up-stream, forcibly
close the head gates of the upper canals, tear out
dams in the river, and let down needed water for
their farms. Thus has come in some parts of the
arid region, a time when, owing to scarcity of water,
110 IRRIGATION.
lawlessness has prevailed, and every man has en-
deavored to obtain for his own crops as much as
possible of the scanty supply.
The necessity for rules and regulations govern-
ing the division of water from the streams early
became apparent in all localities where develop-
ment has proceeded to any considerable extent,
and various schemes have been devised for such
regulation. Along some of the rivers, the farmers
and canal companies, becoming weary of the fre-
quent controversies among themselves, have volun-
tarily joined together, and after much debate and
experimenting have finally agreed upon rules by
which a division of the water has been made.
Where these matters could not be thus settled,
court decisions have been obtained. Such, for
example, has been the result along many of the
streams of California, the arrangements being com-
plicated and difficult of ready comprehension by
the stranger, but well understood by the irrigators
themselves and all based upon experience and local
needs.
In some parts of the arid region the states have
undertaken the regulation of disputes, and have
created special boards or tribunals to consider the
matter and apportion the water. For example, in
Colorado, where the state is divided into districts,
each embracing a single stream, the regulation of
the waters is intrusted to state officials known
as commissioners. The districts are grouped to-
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XIV.
STATE SUPERVISION. in
gather to form divisions corresponding to the
principal river basins. Each division is under
the charge of a superintendent, who supervises the
work of the commissioners. Superintendents, in
turn, are under the state engineer. It is the duty
of these officials to regulate the head gates in time
of scarcity, carrying out the decrees of the state
courts, cutting off water from the new ditches in
order that the older priorities may be supplied,
following the decrees made by the courts as to the
order of priority and amount of water to which
each ditch is entitled.
In Wyoming the state engineer is empowered
to ascertain the amount of water flowing in the
stream, and with the superintendents forms what is
practically a court for the hearing of cases and the
adjudication of claims to the water, the principal
facts having been ascertained by observation and
measurement in the field rather than by testimony
of interested parties, as in Colorado. This has
sometimes been regarded as theoretically the best
method ; but practice has raised some doubts as
to its applicability in states where developments
have proceeded farther.
While there is little uniformity among the dif-
ferent states as regards the control and distribution
of water, there are certain underlying principles
which are discussed on page 286 under the head
of Irrigation Law ; and, more than this, there is
a gradual tendency toward evolution along lines
112 IRRIGATION.
which experience has shown to be best suited to
American conditions. The first stage of develop-
ment is the construction of small ditches, each con-
ducting water from streams sufficiently large to
supply all needs. The next stage is where the
increase in number and capacity of the ditches has
resulted in scarcity of supply and in competition
among the claimants for water. The third stage
is one of mutual adjustment and division according
to court decrees or agreements reached by arbitra-
tion. The next stage, one which is being gradually
reached, is the adjustment of interests so as to allow
an apportionment of water in such a way as to
increase its economical use. For example, instead
of dividing the water strictly according to priority
and thus wasting considerable portions in forcing it
down the stream to lower ditches, the scanty supply
is so distributed as to give the greatest benefit to
the greatest numbers.
The last stage of evolution of water distribution
is that in which, all or the greater part of the in-
terests being mutually adjusted, the united efforts
are directed toward water storage and conservation
of the supply by building reservoirs and by adapt-
ing the methods of irrigation to suit the fluctuating
quantities.
The accompanying figure (24) illustrates the
manner in which ditches have been constructed
at regular intervals along a stream, taking water
out on one side or the other. In this figure the
PRIORITIES.
ditches are numbered in geographical order from
the head waters down, and the lands irrigated
under them are indicated by shading. The order
of priority in the use of water is not that of the
position along the stream. For example, No. 22,
T.29N. R.70W.
T.Z9N.R.69W.
T.ZQN.R.70W.
FIG. £4. — Map of ditches along a stream.
near the lower end, may be the
oldest, and therefore entitled to
the full share of water before all
the others, and No. 7 may be the
latest, and entitled to water only
in times of flood. When, there-
fore, a scarcity occurs in the river,
No. 7 is at once closed down, and then No. 10, if it
happens to be the next as regards recent construc-
tion, and so on, one ditch after another being de-
prived of water in order to supply the oldest ditches
with the needed amount, until finally, in extreme
drought, the ditch first constructed receives the
entire flow. With increase of discharge of the
114 IRRIGATION.
stream, the head gates of the ditches are opened in
the order of date of priorities until, in times of
flood, all are opened.
After a ditch or canal has received its full sup-
ply, or the quantity to which it is entitled, there
usually arise among the various irrigators many
conflicting demands in times of scarcity, the con-
dition being comparable to the claims made by the
canals upon the main stream. In the early days,
when there was plenty of water in the river, and
the ditch or canal carried more water than was
needed, each user took all he chose, flooding his
land freely, sometimes drowning out and destroy-
ing portions of it, and running the excess over the
roads and neighboring grazing land. With the
gradual widening of the cultivated area, the need
for water has increased, and attempts have been
made to check the waste ; but the older irrigators,
accustomed to the lavish use of water, have been
loath to restrict themselves, even though it has
been demonstrated again and again that better
results could be had by using less water.
It has usually been found necessary for the
irrigators to appoint or elect one of their number
to serve for a season as watermaster, and to appor-
tion to each claimant a certain amount of the water,
or assign certain days and hours during which
water can be used. The watermaster must, when
the supply is scanty, go along the canal and see that
the various head gates are closed or opened to
IRRIGATION.
•BBH
PLATE XV.
A. MASONRY HEAD-GATES OF CANAL.
TIMBER REGULATOR.
WATERMASTERS. 115
receive the determined quantity of water, locking
these so that they cannot be tampered with after
he has left. Often the quantity of water has been
settled only after vexatious lawsuits or neighbor-
hood quarrels, and great tact is required to preserve
friendly relations during times of scarcity, when
some crops must be left to wither under the. intense
summer heat, in order to save others whose owners
enjoy older or prior rights.
DAMS AND HEAD GATES.
At the upper end of each ditch it is usual to
construct some device by which the amount of
water entering from the river can be regulated.
Without this, flood waters would fill the ditch
beyond its capacity, overflowing and washing away
the banks. In times of low water, also, the stream
may fall to such an extent that it must be raised
somewhat by a dam and forced into the ditch. At
all times it may be necessary to regulate the flow
in order to apportion the water fairly to. all
concerned.
In the case of the simplest ditch, a small dam
of brush and stone, illustrated in Fig. 25, is usually
built diagonally into or across the stream bed as
the water becomes low in the summer, and this is
made tight by means of sod and earth. Such a
dam is usually washed away by high water, but
can be replaced at small labor and expense. More
permanent structures are sometimes built of timber
u6
IRRIGATION.
or masonry, especially in the case of works con-
structed by large associations or corporations.
These dams, intended to resist the destructive
action of floods, must be solidly constructed and
carried down to bed rock.
FIG. 25. — Plan of diversion works in river.
«
The temporary brush dams are cheaply con-
structed and suffice for most of the smaller ditches,
and even for some of the larger canals. They pos-
sess the advantage that whenever a destructive
flood occurs, modifying the channel, they can be
rebuilt to suit the new conditions, the head of the
ditch being extended, or located at a point where-
ever the dam can be most cheaply or effectively
constructed. Sometimes, as shown in Fig. 26, two
canals head near each other, and the temporary
dams can be modified from time to time to divert
BRUSH DAMS.
117
the water in the river according to the volume
available.
Near the head of a ditch or canal is usually
placed a head gate, or regulator. This consists of
a suitable framework of plank, firmly bedded in
the earth or rock, and containing one or more
openings, each of which can be closed by a gate
FIG. 26. — Brush dams of canals heading near each other.
sliding vertically. The water enters under the
gates, the quantity being controlled by raising or
lowering them. On the better-built canals perma-
nent head gates are sometimes constructed of ma-
sonry, as shown by PI. XV, A. The relative situa-
tions of the canal, dam, and regulator, where the
conditions are favorable, are shown on Fig. 27.
The adjustment of these head gates is a matter
of considerable importance in taking water from
the river, and for large canals it is necessary to
have a watchman stationed near the head, in order
IRRIGATION.
that the gates may be raised or lowered, according
to the amount in the river and the quantity appor-
tioned to the canal.
FIG. 27. — Plan of dam and regulator.
The accompanying drawing (Fig. 28) shows the
method of construction of one of the small timber
head gates, or regulators, such as are used at the
HEAD GATES. 119
head of small ditches leading from the stream or
from some large canal. These are built of plank,
each end being made flaring to meet the sides of
the ditch and to form a firm junction with the
FIG. 28. — Details of small head gate.
earth. It is, of course, important to pack clay
and impervious material around the head gate so
as to prevent leakage, as a tiny stream working
its way through the earth will quickly be enlarged
and endanger the whole structure. Various forms
of head gates are shown on Pis. XV and XVI.
120 IRRIGATION.
MEASURING DEVICES OR MODULES.
After water has been received into a canal and
at various points along its course to the fields of
the irrigators, there frequently arises the necessity
of making measurements of the volume, or of divid-
ing the flow proportionately among the users.
The methods employed are in general similar to
those in river measurements, described in preceding
pages. 'The quantity of water is, however, often
so small, and the means at hand so restricted, that
different ways are occasionally adopted. The per-
sons whose business it is to divide the water rarely
have instruments, such as a current meter, and
their knowledge of hydraulics is too limited to
enable them to make measurements of any con-
siderable accuracy. They usually judge of the
amount of water by its appearance, at most meas-
uring the width and depth, and guessing at the
velocity, or not taking it into account. There is
thus little attempt at accuracy, and, in fact, abso-
lute quantities are not often obtained, but rather
proportional parts of the flow. An irrigator usu-
ally receives a quarter or one-tenth of the water in
the ditch rather than a certain number of gallons
or cubic feet per second. Thus the measuring
boxes or flumes are generally made with the idea
of taking a certain proportion of the whole amount
of water irrespective of the volume.
One of the simplest devices for apportioning
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XVI.
A. REGULATING OR MEASURING DEVICE NEAR HEAD OF CANAL.
B. DISTRIBUTION BOX ON FARMER'S LATERAL.
DIVIDING WATER.
121
1
Fio. 29. — Plan of device for dividing water.
ditch water is shown diagrammatically in the accom-
panying plan (Fig. 29). The water, flowing toward
the left, is divided by the partition marked A. The
water passing on the left-hand side of the partition
A is conducted off by a side channel or lateral,
while that flowing
on the right-hand — ; 7?
side of A continues
in the ditch. This
partition A may
be movable, so as
to divert different
quantities of water
at various times, or may be fixed, if it is understood
that a certain proportion of the water is always to
pass out of a lateral at this point.
If the partition A is in the centre of the stream,
equal amounts of water will be diverted on each
side, except as this may be affected by the retard-
ing influence of the channel beyond. In the con-
dition shown in the diagram, the right-angled turn
would probably cause a slightly less amount of flow
on the left-hand side than on the right-hand side,
where the channel is straight. If, as shown in the
drawing, the partition A is one-third of the dis-
tance across the channel, the amount diverted on
the left side will probably be a trifle less than one-
third of the whole amount, because of the in-
creased friction in the narrower channel, and also
because of the right-angled turn beyond. Other
122 IRRIGATION.
forms of boxes for dividing water are shown on
PL XVI.
The devices for measuring water flowing in open
ditches differ widely from those employed for
measuring in pipes, such as those of a city supply,
where various forms of water meters are utilized,
nearly all of these requiring a decided pressure
and rapid flow. The water in irrigating ditches
has usually only a trifling fall, and it is not possi-
ble to obtain a head or pressure of more than a
few inches. Any measuring device, to be generally
successful, must be so constructed as to pass a con-
siderable amount of water flowing at low velocity
and with little fall or loss of head. An apparatus
of this kind is generally known as a module, the
name being derived from Italian usage. The
term has not come into general use in the United
States, but the measurements of water from ditches
are usually spoken of as being made through boxes,
flumes, or over weirs. The device in use which may
be termed " module," and the one most generally
employed, is that for measuring the miner's inch.
This unit, the miner's inch, is the one most used
throughout the West in speaking of quantity of
water. Irrigators frequently state that they re-
ceive so many miner's inches, or that to irrigate
ten acres it is necessary to have 8 miner's inches.
The term, although .common, is not definite, the
actual quantity known as a miner's inch differ-
ing according to the method of measurement.
MINER'S INCH. 123
It is comparable to the local usage of the word
''shilling," which has been commonly used in New
England to mean i6| cents, while in New York
it has been equally well known as \2\ cents. So
the miner's inch in California may represent a
fiftieth part of a second-foot, and in Arizona a
fortieth part.
The miner's inch is also often confused with the
sectional area of a flowing stream, or even with
the number of cubic inches per second. In
Utah, for example, a stream 20 inches wide
and 3 inches deep has been incorrectly described
as discharging 60 miner's inches, because the
width multiplied by the depth gives this number of
square inches. The term, although indefinite, has
entered so largely into popular usage that it can-
not be easily abandoned, and it may be retained to
advantage if defined as a certain definite part of
the second-foot.
The miner's inch, as the name implies, is a unit
of measurement borrowed from the miners, who
first took out the water of flowing streams, con-
ducted it through ditches or flumes, and divided it
among themselves. The apportioning of water
was found to be most easily done by cutting a
rectangular hole in the side of a flume and allow-
ing a certain quantity of water to flow through
this aperture. The amount discharged depends
not only upon the size and shape of the hole, but
also upon the pressure or height of water standing
124 IRRIGATION.
behind the aperture. That is to say, more water
will flow through a hole an inch square if behind
this hole the water is standing 6 inches deep, than
will be discharged if the water is only 4 inches deep.
In the same way, less water will flow through an
aperture 10 inches wide and I inch high than
through an aperture I inch wide and 10 inches
high, the water standing the same depth above the
top of the hole. These simple facts are often
overlooked, and the laws prescribing how the
miner's inch shall be measured frequently omit
necessary qualifications. Exact justice cannot be
done to all persons obtaining water by this form
of measurement.
The accompanying drawing (Fig. 30) illustrates
a simple form of a device for measuring miner's
inches. This consists of a flume, in the end of
which is placed a partition with an aperture closed
by a sliding bar or gate, marked B. Water flow-
ing in the flume passes out through the orifice,
which in this case is 2 inches high and of a
width dependent upon the space opened by the
sliding gate. Above the top of the orifice is a
plank 5 inches wide. To measure the flow in
the flume, the sliding gate B is pushed in until
the water stands at the top of the end plank and
is on the point of overflowing. When this occurs,
the pressure or head is exactly 5 inches, and the
size of the orifice in square inches gives the equiva-
lent number of miner's inches flowing in the box.
MEASURING MINER'S INCHES.
125
In the example shown, the gate is drawn open
43.5 inches, and as it is 2 inches high, the whole
flow is 87 miner's inches.
In case it is desired to measure out a certain
amount of water, the gate B can be set at this
FlG. 30. — Flume for measuring
quantity, and a gate above, marked A, adjusted so
as to bring the height of the water in the measur-
ing box to the point where it nearly overflows the
end plank. In this way small quantities of water
can be divided with sufficient accuracy for ordinary
purposes. If, however, it is necessary to measure
greater quantities, and the orifice cannot be made
long enough to accommodate these, it is necessary
to make it higher, increasing it, say, from 2 inches
126 IRRIGATION.
in height to 10; there will then flow through such
an orifice more than five times as much water for
a given width of opening. Thus, in attempting to
measure large quantities of water in this way, seri-
ous errors are introduced in favor of the large users
of water.
One of the chief difficulties in attempting to
measure a constant volume by this apparatus is
due to the fact that in many ditches and streams
there are occasional and rapid fluctuations of the
height of water. When the height increases, a
larger amount will be discharged from the orifice ;
and when it falls, a less amount. To secure a con-
stant head or pressure a number of devices have
been made, one of the most interesting of which
's that invented by Mr. A. D. Foote. The meas-
uring box (Fig. 31) B is placed by the side of the
ditch marked A. The water in the ditch is checked
by the small gate D, and a part is forced to flow
through the gate E, raised for the purpose, filling
the box B\ the desired quantity escapes through
the aperture F, into the lateral G. Any excess
of water entering B spills back into the main ditch
at C, so that a nearly constant head can be main-
tained behind the orifice F.
The method of measuring small brooks or creeks
is illustrated by the accompanying figure (32). A
stout plank is placed across the stream, held in
position by stakes, and made tight by tamping clay
on the up-stream side, so that water cannot pass
MEASURING BOX.
127
around or under the obstruction. In the plank is
a slot of sufficient size and width to pass the ordi-
nary discharge of the stream. This slot is from
FIG. 31. — Foote measuring box.
4 to 6 inches below the top of the plank, and is
closed by a gate or board sliding in front of the
slot, and held in position by a small cleat or projec-
tion passing through the slot. This gate is gradu-
ally closed until the water in the stream is about
128
IRRIGATION.
to overflow the plank ; then the size of the orifice
gives the discharge in miner's inches, the exact
quantity being dependent upon the head of water,
or height above the top of the slot, and its relative
proportions.
The standard miner's inch, taking the arid region
as a whole, may be considered as the flow through
FIG. 32. — Method of measuring miner's inches in ditch.
an orifice i inch square with a head or pressure
above the top of the orifice of 6 inches. The
actual quantity is dependent also upon the thick-
ness of the plank or plate in which the orifice is
made, and the character of the edges, whether,
sharp or square. It has been estimated, however,
that the average value of a miner's inch of this
character is 1.5 cubic feet per minute, or .025 sec-
VALUE OF MINER'S INCH. 129
ond-f oot, — in other words, -fa of a second-foot. In
different counties in California it has been found
in use to range from .020 to nearly .030 second-
foot. In Montana a method of measurement in
customary use was through an orifice I inch deep
with a head of 3 J inches above the top. This has
been estimated to furnish .021 second-foot.
The state of California by statute has prescribed
that the miner's inch shall be a fiftieth part of a
second-foot, and Arizona by court decision has set-
tled upon a fortieth part. In Colorado it has been
stated that 38.4 miner's inches made a second-foot,
but this figure has been based on a single deter-
mination. It is sufficiently exact to state that in
this state 40 miner's inches equal a second-foot.
After trying many devices, the engineers and
canal superintendents have, as a rule, usually
adopted some form of open flume or weir, such as
that described on page 99 in connection with
the discussion of river measurements. These are
least likely to be obstructed by floating sticks
or weeds, and are most easily kept in good order.
The method of flume measurement consists in
measuring the width and depth of water in the
flume, and in ascertaining by floats or current
meters the velocity for different heights of water.
By so doing it is possible to construct a table show-
ing the approximate amount of water flowing in
the flume when it is I inch in depth, 2 inches,
3 inches, and so on up to the full capacity of
130 IRRIGATION.
the flume. This method of estimation of discharge
is known as rating the flume. When a rating table
has once been made, it is usually assumed that the
relation between height and quantity of water re-
mains fairly constant.
For flume measurement either one of the struc-
tures needed to conduct the water across some
depression is used, or short sections of the flume,
at least sixteen feet in length, are set in the
canal at some designated point especially for the
purpose of making the measurement. The floor is
smoothly laid and the sides are made either vertical
or flaring, the width of the bottom of the flume
being the same as that of the ditch both above
and below, the cross-section of the flume being as
nearly as possible similar to that of the ditch. A
scale is permanently marked on the side of the
flume, so as to give the depth of water at a
glance. The construction of the flume should be
such as to avoid all cross-currents or disturbance
of the water, the object being to make a portion of
the canal in such manner that the sides and bot-
tom will be smooth and permanent.
To insure greater accuracy than that obtained
in the ordinary flumes, various forms of weirs are
used, these generally having complete contraction
at the sides and bottom, as shown by the accom-
panying diagrams (Figs. 33, 34, and 35). In the
first of these (Fig. 33) a rectangular weir is shown,
the width of the opening being such as to contract
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XVII.
A. FLUME ON ROCKY HILLSIDE.
B. FLUME ACROSS EARTH IN A SIDEHILL CUT.
RECTANGULAR WEIR. 131
the stream on both sides and at the bottom, the
distance AB from the bottom of the flume or
ditch to the crest of the weir being at least twice
that of the height H of the water passing over
the crest. With this form of weir it is possible
FIG. 33. — Rectangular weir.
to compute the discharge by use of the simple
formula prepared by Mr. James B. Francis, from
results of elaborate experiments carried on through
many years in the canal built for water power at
Lowell, Massachusetts. The discharge in cubic
feet per second is 3.33 times the length in feet into
the height in feet when the latter quantity has
been cubed, or multiplied by itself twice in succes-
132
IRRIGATION.
sion, and the square root of the cube been taken.
Or in other words, the quantity equals 3^ times
the length into the three-half power of the height
In this statement the length taken is what is known
as the effective length, and not the actual meas-
urement, the measured crest being reduced by
one-tenth of the depth of the water H for each
end contraction.
,,;J:p-.
FIG. 34. — Trapezoidal or Cippoletti weir.
In order to obviate the necessity of making cor-
rections for the end contractions of a weir, an
Italian engineer, Cesare Cippoletti, devised a trape-
zoidal weir, or one with sloping edges, as shown in
Fig. 34. The effective length in this case corre-
sponds to the actual length of the crest of the
weir, thus obviating the necessity of making an
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XVIII.
TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR.
133
allowance in the computation for the end con-
traction.
Weirs of this kind have been placed in irrigation
ditches, and the height of water noted from time
to time by means of the gage set back from the
crest. It is possible at each reading of the height
FIG. 35. — Trapezoidal weir with self-recording device.
of water to obtain by computation, or by a table
constructed for the purpose, the amount flowing
at that moment. As this quantity fluctuates, it is
desirable to have some form of self-recording gage,
so that the changes which have taken place can be
known. An arrangement of this kind is shown in
Fig- 35> where a trapezoidal or Cippoletti weir has
134 IRRIGATION.
been placed at the end of a short flume and the
small recording device arranged on the side of the
flume. As the water rises or falls, a float attached
to a pencil moves up or down, making a mark on
a piece of paper placed upon a cylinder or dial and
driven by clockwork. The irregular line traced
by the pencil gives a complete record of the height
of the water, and from this the corresponding
quantities can be computed.
FLUMES AND WOODEN PIPES.
If the ground through which the ditch or canal
is constructed were everywhere a gentle slope with
well-rounded curves, it would be a comparatively
easy matter to dig the necessary channel ; but
there are often small ravines coming into the main
stream from each side, bringing water drained
from the highland surrounding the valley. Some
of these side channels are very deep and have steep
sides, so that the ditch cannot be run around them
or continued up one side and down the other. It
often happens also that the water of these side
channels is utilized by farmers, and must be kept
separate from that in the ditch under considera-
tion. Even if the water of the side drainage could
otherwise be taken into the ditch, it is usually in-
expedient to do so, because local storms often send
down these channels great quantities of water,
carrying sand, gravel, and boulders, and these
deposited in the ditch would fill it up.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XIX.
SEMICIRCULAR WOODEN FLUME.
FLUMES.
135
In the construction of nearly every conduit of this
character it becomes necessary to take water across
a depression. This is generally done by means of a
flume, or long box, usu?.lly rectangular in section.
This is supported by a frame or trestle of timber,
the lower part of
which rests upon
the ground. The
vertical elevation
of such a device
is shown in the
accompanying fig-
ure (36), which
gives the general
form of the trestle
with its cross-brac-
ing, also of the
flume, which is
shown with the
water filling it
nearly to the top.
Such flumes are
often used across
rocky ground
where it is im-
practicable to dig a ditch. This is particularly
the case near the head, where the water is often
taken out from the river through a narrow, steep-
walled canyon. Here the foundation for a flume
is prepared along the rocky cliffs, supports being
FlG. 36. — Vertical elevation of trestle and
flume.
136 IRRIGATION.
devised to suit the inequalities of the ground.
Plate XVII, A, shows one of these flumes built
along a rocky hillside.
In some cases, instead of a rectangular, box-like
flume, a V-shaped section, shown in Fig. 48, on
page 184, is built, economizing lumber and obtaining
a greater velocity. Such flumes have been con-
structed mainly by lumber companies for trans-
porting cordwood, railroad ties, planks, and boards
from the mountains down to the lower lands, the
water being used to some extent in irrigation. A
better and more expensive type of flume is that
having a semicircular section, such as shown in
the accompanying view (PL XIX). These flumes
are built of narrow planks or staves laid side by
side, and held in place by iron bands run around
under the flume and fastened by nuts and threads,
by which the bands can be drawn up and the
staves brought together, making a tight joint.
In crossing very deep depressions it is necessary
to have a correspondingly high trestle, in order to
carry the flume across on grade. Such high tres-
tles are not only expensive, but are liable to de-
struction by storms, and in place of them have
been built what are known as inverted siphons or
wooden stave pipes. These pipes are built in a
manner somewhat similar to the semicircular flurne,
being made of narrow plank carefully planed to a
given dimension and held in place by circular iron
bands or hoops. The ends of these hoops are
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XX.
A. PIPE UNDER 1 60-FOOT HEAD, SANTA ANA CANAL, CALIFORNIA.
B. OLD FLUME AND REDWOOD PIPE REPLACING IT, REDLANDS
CANAL, CALIFORNIA.
INVERTED SIPHONS.
137
brought together by means of suitable screws, by
which the hoops can be made smaller, drawing in
the staves and compressing the joints. On the
Elevation.
Cross -Section.
FlG. 37. — Siphon passage for canal.
accompanying illustration (PL XX, A) one of these
wooden pipes is shown supported on a low trestle,
the ends of the iron bands appearing as projections
138 IRRIGATION.
regularly arranged around the pipe. On PL XX, B,
is shown an old wooden flume of the ordinary type,
and in the foreground a redwood stave pipe
replacing it. A similar wooden pipe is shown on
PL LI 1 1, and an open semicircular flume on PL
XXII, A.
Inverted siphons, whether of wood or masonry,
are used to carry a canal under a side channel in-
stead of over it. Figure 37 shows a masonry struc-
ture built beneath the bed of a torrential stream.
In the upper part of the figure is a longitudinal
section, the course of the water in the stream chan-
nel being shown by the arrows. In the middle of
the figure is the plan showing a dividing wall for
supporting the masonry roof of the inverted siphon.
At the bottom of the figure is a cross-section of
the central part of the structure, showing the siphon
passing under the stream through the two channels
formed by the dividing wall.
TUNNELS.
Where the ground is so irregular that it is im-
practicable to build flumes, recourse must be had to
tunnels. These are usually short, cutting through
rocky spurs. An excellent example of work of this
character is that along Bear River in Utah, near the
head of the canal taking water from the canyon
below Cache Valley, shown on PL LV. The
rocky walls are so steep that it has been found
necessary to excavate a canal partly in the walls
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXI.
A. TUNNEL ON TURLOCK CANAL, CALIFORNIA.
B. TUNNEL IN EARTH ON CROCKER-HUFFMAN CANAL,
CALIFORNIA.
TUNNELS. 139
and partly piercing projecting portions, making
a substantial masonry structure.
Similar methods have been employed on the
Turlock Canal in California, where a series of short
tunnels alternate with open side-hill cutting as
shown on PL XXI, A. Farther along the line of
the canal it is sometimes necessary to make an
underground passage to avoid a deep cut. Such
a tunnel is illustrated at B on the same plate, this
being on the Crocker-Huffman Canal, which takes
water from Merced River, California. This skirts
the base of the foothills on the south side of the
river, and reaches the upland above the town of
Merced.
These tunnels, when built through solid rock, do
not require lining, but in many situations they must
be supported by masonry or substantial brickwork,
although in a few instances temporary wooden sup-
ports are preferred. In order to increase the ve-
locity through the tunnel and thus reduce its area
for a given volume of flow, a smooth concrete lin-
ing is usually provided for the bottom and sides.
LINING OF CANALS.
In portions of the United States where frosts do
not occur to any considerable extent and where
water has greatest value, experience has shown
that it is desirable to line the ditches and canals
with concrete or cement, thus reducing loss by per-
colation and making the channel so smooth that
140
IRRIGATION.
the water moves rapidly even on slight grades.
Often it is possible to trim the banks of the
ditches to a uniform surface, and this is found to
be sufficiently firm to serve as a foundation upon
which to put a layer of cement mixed with sand
and having a thickness of from | of an inch to i^
inches. Where the bed and banks are not firm, it
FlG. 38. — Section of cement-lined ditch with stop gate.
is necessary to pave or revet them with small stone,
and then place upon this a coat of concrete made
of 'small gravel and sand. The economy of water
resulting from this careful construction has been
found to be sufficiently large to justify a consider-
able outlay. The accompanying figure (38) shows
a portion of a ditch lined with small stone covered
with cement, and in this a stop gate for the purpose
of regulating the flow. This gate is hung at the
CEMENT LINING OF DITCHES 141
points marked «, and can be swung up out of the
way when not needed to check the water and raise
it so that it will flow out into lateral distributing
ditches or furrows.
The accompanying illustration (PL XXII, B) also
gives a view of a portion of the Santa Ana Canal
in Southern California as completed, with a lining
of boulders roughly broken into shape and laid in
cement mortar. The walls were first built against
the sloping sides of the excavation, which was made
in hard clay and natural cement gravel. These
side slopes were generally 2 feet vertical to I hori-
zontal. The bottom or invert was paved and the
chinks were filled with coarse sand and spalls, with
a layer of mortar roughly bedded on top. On this
was laid. the cement-plaster lining. The walls were
laid with considerable care, giving a rough surface.
They were from 16 to 20 inches thick on the bottom
and from 8 to 10 inches thick on the top. In the
view the width of the finished section is 12.5 feet
on top and 7.5 feet deep at the centre.
EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION IN CANALS.
Since the greater part of the water used in ir-
rigation must for economy be conducted by gravity,
it is necessary to consider carefully the slopes to
be given the conduits. This is especially true
where a broad valley is to be irrigated from a
stream whose upper course is only a few feet
above the general level of the land. If the grade
142 IRRIGATION.
is steep, it will either be necessary to lengthen the
canal or to take water only to the lower land, leav-
ing the higher portions of the valley dry. If, on
the other hand, a very gentle grade is given, the
water will flow slowly, and a very wide canal must
be built to carry the necessary volume.
Equally important as the consideration of the
relative height of the source of the water and
the land to be irrigated, if not more so, are the
effects of the slope of the canal upon the velocity
of the water and the consequent cutting or filling
of its channel. With steep grade the water moves
with such rapidity as to pick up and carry along
fine particles, and with increasing velocity larger
and larger grains of sand or pebbles are moved,
eroding the channel and carrying tHe loose mate-
rial to points where it may be a source of annoy-
ance or injury. The power of the stream to cut
its bottom and sides increases very rapidly with
higher velocities. Experiments indicate that by
doubling the velocity of the stream its power to
carry is not merely doubled but is increased sixty-
four times ; thus a very slight change in the rate
at which water flows makes a very great difference
in its behavior as regards carrying or depositing
loose materials.
When, because of its great velocity, water has
taken up and is carrying silt, sand, or gravel, and
the velocity is reduced in any way, the heavier
particles are immediately dropped. A torrential
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXII.
A. SEMICIRCULAR FLUME IN SANTA ANA CANAL, CALIFORNIA.
OB39
B. CEMENT LINING OF SANTA ANA CANAL, CALIFORNIA.
SEDIMENTATION. 143
stream, entering a pond or reservoir, deposits at
once the boulders or gravel, then the sand, this
being dropped a little farther on, and finally the
clay or silt in the broader, stiller portions. A
similar condition occurs in a ditch or a canal.
Water from the river is sometimes muddy, espe-
cially in times of flood. On entering the canal,
if the velocity is reduced at any point, some of
this material will settle, forming a deposit along
the sides or bottom. In this way the enlarged
portions of the canal, such as a little embayment
along its sides, will be gradually filled with sand
or mud, the tendency being for a stream of uni-
form grade and volume to fill in the depressions
or nooks along its course and to wear away pro-
jecting points or obstructions.
If, for a given volume of water, the cross-sec-
tion of a portion of a canal is too large, the velocity
will be checked and sediment deposited, reducing
the size of the channel until this reduced area
reacts by causing a slight increase in the velocity
of the water. In other words, the flowing water
tends to enlarge obstructions and to fill up and
reduce the channels which are too capacious for
its volume. Such a result is seen in the accom-
panying figure (39), where the broken lines show
the original slope of the ground, and also the form
of the canal. The flowing stream has gradually
deposited mud and sand on each side, as shown
by the dotted portions of the drawing, diminishing
144 IRRIGATION.
the area of the cross-section to a point where the
water is forced to maintain its velocity and con-
tinue to carry the sediment.
FIG. 39. — Cross-section of canal partly filled with sediment.
Some rivers, such as the Rio Grande, transport
so large a volume of earth that the canals and
ditches leading from the stream are quickly filled,
and it is necessary to clean out the mud at short
intervals. The view, PI. XIII, B, shows one of
these ditches with the mud piled high on each
side, the result of the annual cleaning of the ditch.
The cost of removing the sediment is often a
large item in the operating expenses. For clean-
ing very large canals and for enlarging them,
dredges have been used similar to that shown
on PL XIV. These float along the canal as the
material is dug out from the bottom and sides.
By means of such a device a canal can be cleaned
while in use, otherwise it is necessary to shut the
water off and allow the bottom to become suffi-
ciently dry for horses and men to work in it.
If, on the other hand, the grade of a canal is
so steep as to erode the sides and bottom, some
method must be taken to .prevent this, for damage
results in several ways. The erosion of the bot-
EXCESSIVE GRADES. 145
torn gradually reduces the level of the water in the
ditch, and the material carried along is finally de-
posited at some place where it may choke the
-ditches or cover fertile land. The removal of
fine material leaves the bed open and porous,
the water escaping by percolation. The losses in
this direction are prevented where the conditions
are such that a small amount of silt is deposited
and remains, filling or cementing the minute open-
ings through which water would otherwise escape.
The difficulties resulting from excessive grade of
a canal are remedied by building what are known
as "drops," two of these being shown on PL
XXIII. They consist of suitable arrangements
for the water to fall over low dams or weirs upon
solid rock, or into a deep pool, where the force
of the water will be expended without injury to the
canal.
For very small ditches a great slope can be
used, since the volume of water is not sufficient to
move the large particles of sand and gravel; for
example, on the farm lateral, carrying i or 2 sec-
ond-feet, a fall of 50 feet or more to the mile may
not be excessive, the velocity being retarded by
the relatively great friction. On the other ex-
treme, a large irrigation canal carrying 1000 sec-
ond-feet may be in danger of injury if a grade of
much over 6 inches to the mile is given it.
As a general rule it may be said that conduits
of this character built in common earth should be
146 IRRIGATION.
so proportioned as to have an average velocity of
a little less than 3 feet per second, or 2 miles per
hour, when carrying their full capacity. It is nec-
essary, therefore, to take into consideration the
amount of water to be carried, and from this de-
duce the size and shape of the cross-section of the
canal or ditch, in order to obtain its velocity.
Many of the older irrigation works laid out by
crude devices, such as a large triangle and plumb-
line, have been given an excessive grade through
fear on the part of the builders of getting too little
fall. Some of these are as much as 50 feet to
the mile, giving a velocity of the water of 5 feet
per second, washing the bed of the channel and
leaving only a mass of cobbles. The seepage
through this material, even if the water is flowing
rapidly, has been known in one instance to be over
20 per cent of the total flow in a course of four
miles.
Where the grade of a ditch is so small that the
water is flowing very gently, the conditions are
sometimes favorable to the growth of aquatic
weeds or grasses. Under the bright sunlight the
water is warmed, and the development of these
plants sometimes reaches such an extent as to
completely fill the ditch. The water must then
be turned out and the plants cut and thrown out
upon the bank. Sometimes, where it is not pos-
sible to shut off the water, the weeds are raked
out, or even mowed under water. In any case a
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXIII.
A. DROP IN AN ARIZONA CANAL.
B. CHECK WEIR AND DROP.
AQUATIC PLANTS. 147
considerable amount of time and labor must be
given to keeping these gently flowing streams free
from obstruction. For this reason it is desirable
to give ditches such a fall that they will keep
themselves clean and yet will not erode their bot-
toms. This is a difficult matter to estimate, since
the velocity of the water varies greatly at different
stages, and the soils encountered by the ditch may
range from gravels to the finest clays or silts.
In very muddy waters many of the aquatic
plants do not develop, so that there is frequently
an advantage in this respect, in addition to the
value of turbid waters in fertilizing the fields. If
the silt can be retained in suspension, not dropped
in the ditch to fill it up, and be carried out to the
fields of the farmer, the fine material left here on
the surface may have considerable value in enrich-
ing the soil. The muddy waters frequently carry
a considerable amount of organic matter and nitro-
gen in form available for plant use. It has been
estimated, from chemical analysis, that the mud
deposited on irrigated lands of Salt River Valley,
Arizona, is equivalent in richness to fertilizers
valued at $8 per acre. That is to say, if the irri-
gators of this valley were forced to purchase and
apply to their farms commercial fertilizer of equal
strength, it would cost $8 per acre. As compared
with clear water obtained from artesian wells, the
muddy water possesses certain advantages. On the
other hand, it frequently carries with it noxious
148 IRRIGATION.
seeds, and in extreme conditions may injure young
vegetation by covering the leaves with slimy mud.
The greater part of the silt brought down by
the rivers and carried out in the ditches occurs in
times of flood, when there is ample supply of water,
and when, by running the ditches full and at high
velocity, the material can be carried through to
the fields. Later in the year the waters usually
become clear, unless the upper catchment basins
have been denuded of their grasses and shubbery
by overgrazing. In some localities the great
bands of sheep, as shown on PL VI, B, have so
completely eaten up the vegetation, and the ground
has been so thoroughly pulverized by the small,
sharp feet of the sheep, that every local rain brings
down great quantities of soil, filling the ditches
and keeping the water muddy.
The losses of water in canals through seepage
and evaporation are frequently very great and
have amounted to over one half the quantity
received. The evaporation losses may be reduced
slightly by increasing the velocity of the water,
and thus shortening the time in transit. Seepage
can be largely prevented, as above noted, by a
cement lining, or by the deposition of the fine silt,
which, when not in excess, is thus of great use and
value.
CHAPTER V.
RESERVOIRS.
WHEREVER lakes, ponds, or large marshes occur
on the head waters or along the course of a stream,
fluctuations of the volume are to a large extent
prevented. After a heavy rain the water, seeking
the drainage lines, tends to flow off rapidly, but
first fills the ponds ; these overflow gradually, in-
creasing the volume of the river, so that, instead
of passing off as a violent flood of a few hours'
duration, the storm results in the gradually in-
creasing flow of a large volume of water in the
river through days or even weeks.
The natural regulation of the flow can be fur-
ther improved by placing obstructions at the out-
lets of these ponds, m order to hold the water
when not needed in the river below. This has
been done to a considerable extent for water-
power development and for mining purposes.
Natural lakes are, however, comparatively rare on
the head waters of most streams useful in irriga-
tion. Among the high mountains, especially
under the peaks from which glaciers have issued,
there are some ponds whose outlets can be closed
149
150 IRRIGATION.
at small expense; but the water coming from
these is almost insignificant in comparison with
that which occurs lower down.
In the course of a river issuing from mountains,
there are occasionally found broad valleys from
which the water escapes through narrow canyons.
These have resulted from the erosion of soft rocks,
or more often from the disturbance of the drainage
due to the uplifting of a part of the earth's
crust, or by the outpouring of lava, or the forma-
tion of basaltic dykes.
It is apparent that, by closing the outlets of
some of these valleys, the processes of nature can
be imitated in regulating the flow of the streams.
The flood waters can be held behind the artificial
barrier, such as that shown on PL XXIV, and let
out through gates whenever needed for power or
for watering agricultural lands. At first sight it
appears to be an easy matter to accomplish this,
and throughout the arid region there are reported
to be innumerable localities suitable for water stor-
age. An examination of these, however, leads to
many disappointments, as there must be a combi-
nation of several features to insure the practica-
bility of reservoir construction.
REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER STORAGE.
The requirements for successful water storage
on any considerable scale are : an abundance of
water to be stored, capacity in which to hold this,
WATER STORAGE. 151
favorable situation for a dam, and suitable material
for its construction, and also reasonable cost of
labor, material, and land, if any is purchased for
right of way or flooding.
The amount of water to be stored should in all
cases be ascertained in advance by careful meas-
urements made through a number of seasons at the
point where the water is to be held. Disappoint-
ment and financial loss have resulted from assum-
ing that there will undoubtedly be* plenty of water,
or by taking the statements of the " oldest inhabit-
ants " to this effect. It is impossible to judge by
the eye as to the volume of ,a flood. One which is
particularly destructive and impressive in its appar-
ent magnitude may, upon careful measurement, be
found to have discharged an amount far less than
anticipated. The intensity of the flood, or rapidity
with which it moves, often gives an exaggerated
idea of its volume.
Many serious blunders have been made because
of lack of definite information concerning the water
supply. Persons dwelling along the bank of a
stream often entertain absurd notions concerning
the quantity flowing at ordinary or high stages.
They have no means of forming a correct concep-
tion of volume', and will confidently assert that
there is enough water to irrigate a million acres,
when, as a matter of fact, there may be sufficient
for only ten thousand. The investor, and even the
engineer visiting the locality, may become infected
152 IRRIGATION.
with this optimistic spirit, and consider useless any
further delay or expenditure to ascertain the fluctua-
tions of the stream. Being impatient to begin work,
they will take the statements of the people, and
base their plans upon these.
In a well-known instance of the construction of
a large storage dam which was under consideration
for ten years or more, no measurements of volume
of water were made, but when the constructing en-
gineers were employed they were assured that the
stream at that time was at a low stage. It was
then carrying 2000 second-feet. As a matter of
fact, it was really in inoderate flood, and the low-
water flow, six months earlier or later, was less
than one-tenth of this quantity. The structure was
planned and built without further delay, as the
engineers did not consider that they had any
duties beyond putting up the desired structure ;
but when finished, disappointment and loss of in-
vestment resulted, it being then found that there
was not enough water.
The actual capacity of a proposed reservoir site
is also often found to be disappointing upon care-
ful survey. In going into the mountains where
the slopes are steep, the eye is misled as to slight
inclinations of surface. Valleys which seem to be
flat are often found, when a levelling instrument is
used, to be decidedly inclined, and instead of a
dam 100 feet high backing up the water three
miles, as at first estimated, it is not unusual to
RESERVOIR CAPACITY.
153
discover that the
water will be ponded
for a distance of
only one mile. In
short, many locali-
ties which upon the
first search are
thought to be desir-
able are la-
ter found
to have less
capacity
than antic-
ipated. It is essential, there-
fore, to follow the preliminary
examination by mapping each
proposed reservoir site.
The accompanying draw-
ing (Fig. 40) shows in re-
duced form a map of this
character. The Land Office
lines are shown by the rec-
tangles, each of these indicat-
ing forty acres. Four of
these make a quarter-section.
The centre of each whole
section is indicated by the
symbols, Sec. 4, Sec. 5, etc.
The dam site is in the lower
right-hand corner of the draw-
FIG. 40. — Map of a reservoir.
154 IRRIGATION.
ing, where the contour lines come closely together,
indicating a steep, narrow outlet. The first or
lowest contour shows the location of all points
10 feet above the stream at the dam site. The
next contour, marked 20 feet, gives points 20
feet above the bottom, or which form the shore
when the reservoir is filled to a depth of 20 feet.
The highest contour is 75 feet, and indicates the
outline of the reservoir when filled to this depth.
Where the contours run together the banks are
steep, and where they are far apart the slope is
gentle. From a map of this character it is possi-
ble to ascertain the area and capacity of the reser-
voir for all depths.
If there is plenty of water, and a place in which
to hold it, the next question is the feasibility of
building a dam. Every consideration demands
that this structure should be made absolutely safe,
and therefore the most substantial masonry is
usually recommended. This must be founded
upon bed rock and extended at each side into the
solid walls of the canyon or gorge.
Where a river escapes from a valley through a
narrow rocky cut, it might be and frequently is
assumed that the water would keep this gorge
washed clean and flow over bed rock, but this is
rarely the case. At present, in the arid regions,
the bottoms of nearly all the canyons are filled to
a considerable depth with loose material. In the
earlier ages the rivers, probably having more
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXIV.
FOUNDATIONS OF DAMS. 155
water, cut down into solid rock, and later, receiving
a less supply, became overloaded with gravel and
boulders during flood time, and have left these
scattered all along the course, even in the narrow-
est places. This deposit of gravel and boulders,
some of them weighing tons, usually has a thick-
ness of from 20 to 100 feet or more. The founda-
tion of a masonry dam must extend beneath all
of this loose material, and the greater part of the
expense is often incurred on that portion of the
structure which is out of sight beneath the surface.
The clearing out of the debris in order to place
the foundation upon bed rock offers many difficul-
ties, since the stream must be passed over or
around tke work, and the latter kept sufficiently
dry for the quarrying and stone-laying to proceed.
With a depth of 50 feet or more, the cost of con-
trolling the water, especially if floods occur, may
become so great as to be prohibitory to the enter-
prise. The bed rock itself may be weak or partly
disintegrated,, and all of this loose or seamy mate-
rial must be taken out to insure a perfectly water-
tight joint.
In carrying up the masonry structure from the
bottom, a trench is cut into the side walls as far as
open fissures or cracks extend, and care taken to
make such a perfect joint between the dam and
the rock that no leaks may occur. A small amount
of water working its way under or around the dam
will sooner or later wear out or dissolve a large
156 IRRIGATION.
hole and weaken the structure, if it does not de-
stroy it.
Besides these fundamental requirements there
are others, such as cost of cement, which is largely
governed by the distance it must be hauled from
the main line of railroad, facilities for obtaining
labor, and the value of the land or other property
taken for the reservoir and dam site. All of these
items must be carefully considered in connection
with the value of the water when stored. This
latter item is dependent upon the kind of crops to
be raised and similar considerations. When all of
these matters have been taken into account, out
of a dozen reservoir sites considered, there is usu-
ally only one or two which can be recommended
for construction.
KEEPING RESERVOIRS CLEAN.
There is still another item which must be recog-
nized in some parts of the country, and this is the
cost of removing silt from the reservoir. The
floods bring down great quantities of material
washed from the hills, rolling down boulders,
gravel, sand, and clay, all of which may be caught
in the reservoir. The boulders and gravel do not
travel far at a time, and are usually soon deposited ;
but sand and especially fine clayey particles are
often carried out into the reservoir, tending to fill
it. Some of this material will remain in suspen-
sion and be drawn off, some can be washed out
SILT IN RESERVOIRS. 157
through or over the dam, while the remainder
must be removed by hydraulic dredges or similar
devices. The necessity for cleaning out a storage
reservoir has not yet been demonstrated by actual
filling of any in the United States, but this is a
contingency worthy of consideration.
The difficulties which may arise from the ac-
cumulation of sediment in a reservoir have been a
source of needless alarm to persons who have given
slight attention to the matter. The work of remov-
ing silt has been exaggerated by persons who, for
one reason or another, wish to bring about delay
in the beginning of construction of storage works
by the government. There is no question that in
some cases the accumulation of silt will become a
source of annoyance and expense, but not an insu-
perable obstacle. The condition is somewhat analo-
gous to that in railroad construction. It might be
argued in advance that a railroad could not possi-
bly be operated more than ten years, because at
the end of that time all of the wooden ties upon
which the rails are laid would be rotten and unsafe,
and the rails must be all taken up and relaid, with
great expense and delay. Experience, however,
has shown that, although railroad ties do decay,
they can be replaced without disturbing traffic.
In the same way it can be shown that the silt ac-
cumulating in a reservoir can be removed from
time to time.
Most of the reservoirs in which silt is liable to
158 IRRIGATION.
accumulate are so situated that water is drawn
from some point near the bottom, so that much of
the silt, especially that near the dam, will be drawn
out when water is taken for irrigation. The finer
silt in the water in a large reservoir is kept in sus-
pension almost indefinitely by wave motion and
currents, the lighter particles floating for weeks,
and even months. That portion of the sediment
which has settled on the bottom is very easily dis-
turbed ; and when water is being drawn out of the
reservoir, a stirring of the bottom by a dredge or
other device will cause much of the material to
rise and be carried off.
As the water in a reservoir is drawn down, ex-
posing the mud banks, it is practicable to bring
the incoming stream at the upper end around the
top contour of the reservoir in suitably constructed
ditches, and then turn the water down, washing
out the mud banks either by the stream flowing
across them or by confining the water in pipes
and cutting out the accumulation of debris by
hydraulic giants similar to those used in placer
mining or in hydraulic construction, as shown on
Pis. XXVIII and XXIX. An enormous amount
of the light dirt can thus be moved at very small
cost and run out through the lower gates of the
reservoir.
Another way proposed for keeping reservoirs
clean is by means of floating dredges, particularly
those which pump up the mud by suction and
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXV.
A. LAGRANGE DAM, NEARLY COMPLETED.
B. LAGRANGE DAM, WITH FLOOD PASSING OVER CREST AND
SPILLWAYS.
CLEANING RESERVOIRS. 159
deliver it into pipes conveying it to the shore.
Such dredges can be operated by electric power
generated by a small portion of the water drawn
from the reservoir for use in irrigation. By such
means, adapted to the local conditions, it is prac-
ticable to keep a reservoir clean just as other
public works are kept in order. All great struc-
tures, whether for river and harbor improvement
or for other purposes, require a certain amount of
attention, and the fact that continual and intelli-
gent care is needed for storage reservoirs cannot
be used as an argument against their success.
MASONRY DAMS.
The oldest and most substantial structures for
holding water are those built of masonry. The
form of a dam of this character is shown in the
accompanying figure (41), which is typical of a con-
siderable number of works in the United States
and in Europe. This is a section of the masonry
dam in Tuolumne River, a short distance above La
Grange, California. The dimensions are indicated,
the thickness near the botton being 84 feet and the
height nearly 120 feet. The stones composing
the dam have been carefully set in cement, and
those on the outer face have been cut to fit one an-
other. A general view of this dam with the water
pouring over it is shown on PI. XXV. A plan is
also given in Fig. 42, the direction of the water
being indicated by the arrow.
i6o
IRRIGATION.
On the right is the head of the Modesto Canal.
The excess water entering the canal is allowed to
escape over a long concrete spillway wall. Beyond
this are waste gates, and then the regulator, which
FIG. 41. — Section of masonry dam at La Grange, California.
permits the desired quantity to enter the canal.
On the left is indicated the position of the Turlock
Canal, which comes out from a tunnel, the size of
this regulating the amount which can enter the
canal.
MASONRY DAMS.
161
Structures of this kind, when well built, may be
considered absolutely safe. There are, however, a
number of precautions to be taken, which, if neg-
FIG. 42. — Plan of dam at La Grange, California.
1 62 IRRIGATION.
lected, may be fatal, as shown by a few accidents
which have occurred. The most notable of these
in recent times is the failure of the Austin Dam
jn Texas, views of which are shown on PI. XXVI.
The upper picture is of the dam, looking across
Colorado River toward the power house above the
city of Austin. The lower view is from the oppo-
site direction and shows the fragments of the dam
immediately after its failure during the flood of
April 7, 1900. At that time water to the depth
of 1 1 feet was pouring over the top. Apparently
a section of about 500 feet in length slid forward.
This has been attributed to various causes, but
the general explanation is, that beneath the dam
was a layer of soft rock into which water pen-
etrated during the flood, tending to float the dam,
and weakened its strength to such an extent
that it slid forward upon the yielding surface.
This dam was located at a point of disturbance of
the bedded limestone, and in the vicinity of what
is known by geologists as a fault or zone of frac-
ture, so that leaks or so-called springs appeared
below the dam at one end, these being doubtless
due to water finding its way into the shattered
rocks and out at the first point of escape.
ROCK-FILLED DAMS.
Besides the masonry dams carefully laid by
hand, a number of rock structures have been built
in which the attempt has been made to lessen
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXVI.
A. DAM AT AUSTIN, TEXAS ; LOOKING TOWARD POWER HOUSE.
B. PORTIONS OF AUSTIN DAM IMMEDIATELY AFTER FAILURE.
ROCK-FILLED DAMS. 163
the expense by throwing in the stone, letting
them take such position as they will, not filling the
interstices with cement. These are known as rock-
filled dams. The upper face must be made water-
tight by an impervious wall of masonry, wood, or
metal. The pile of rock behind this face serves
to hold it in place and prevent it from being washed
away. It is necessary to provide such structures
with ample wasteways, so that the waters will not
overflow the top and wash out the loose rock,
weakening the structure. This has happened in
the case of the Walnut Grove Dam in Arizona,
where a sudden severe storm or cloudburst over-
topped the structure, washed out the loose rock
which held up the impervious face, and allowed
the entire volume in the reservoir to burst out,
overwhelming the settlements below.
When a person is standing on the side of a deep
canyon, the thought occurs : Why not throw down
a part of the walls of the canyon by means of
enormous blasts, and allow the material to choke
up the bottom of the gorge, and thus pond the
water back and overflow the valley above ? This
experiment has been tried, and great quantities
of rock have been thrown into a stream channel
by titanic explosions of dynamite. The difficulty
encountered, however, has been that the water
quickly finds a way through this mass of loose
material, and cannot be held for a sufficient length
of time to repay the cost of outlay.
164 IRRIGATION.
It is necessary to provide some form of impervi-
ous wall in the loose rock, or a tight cover at its
upper face. To construct this after the material is
in place is exceedingly difficult, since the accumu-
lated rock tends to hold back the water and inter-
fere with the construction of the retaining wall.
In southern California several dams have been
successfully constructed by a modification of this
method, these being at localities where the flowing
water has not been sufficient in quantity to inter-
fere with the work. Chief among these are the
Morena and Lower Otay dams, easterly from the
city of San Diego. After the heavy explosions,
the ground immediately above the rock heap was
cleaned away to bed rock and a concrete base pre-
pared for the insertion of a steel plate. This plate
was continued upward across the narrow canyon,
being protected on each side by a thin layer of as-
phaltum and a thickness of concrete against this.
On both sides of the plate was placed the loose
rock (PI. XXVII, A), this being lifted and deposited
in position by means of derricks and overhead
cables. The completed structure consists of a
substantial pile of rock, the impervious steel plate
preventing leakage.
As indicated by the preceding statements, the
most desirable structures for holding water are those
built of substantial masonry. It occasionally hap-
pens, however, that dams of this kind cannot be
built for lack of suitable material conveniently
STEEL-CORE AND TIMBER DAMS. 165
located, and other forms of structure must be
considered. For this purpose earth, timber, iron,
and steel are sometimes employed. Steel has
been used through the interior of a dam, as just
noted, and also for the entire structure, strength
being given, not by the weight of rock, but by a
system of bracing similar to that employed in ships
and great buildings. There is no difficulty as to
the original strength, but doubt has arisen in the
minds of many engineers as to the permanence of
the work, because of the possible effects of rust
or other forms of deterioration.
Timber dams are widely used, especially for lum-
bering operations and for mill purposes. These
have been built in great numbers upon rivers flow-
ing from forested regions, where timber is plentiful.
They are usually of relatively low height, and con-
sist of logs framed to form cribs, these being filled
with large stones and thus held in place. The
upper face of these dams is covered with a sheath-
ing of planks, making the dams nearly water-tight.
Timber or log structures of this kind are used to
a small extent in the arid region, but they are tem-
porary expedients, resorted to with the idea of
replacing them by better works as soon as the
irrigators acquire the means with which to make
a more substantial dam. As used for this purpose,
they are for the most part at the outlets of small
natural lakes, partly closing these and raising the
water at the time of the spring floods. These
166 IRRIGATION.
timber dams are designed to accomplish the de-
sired end temporarily at the least possible cost.
A view of one of these temporary dams is given
on PL XXVII, B.
EARTH DAMS.
Earth is largely used for holding water in locali-
ties such as those upon the edge of the Great Plains,
where there are broad basins or shallow depressions
into which water can be taken from local floods.
It is usually necessary to provide a very long and
relatively low bank to increase the storage capacity
of these basins, as in this situation there is rarely
any rock or timber. Earth must, therefore, be
used, carefully compacted and piled up in such
quantities that the water cannot seep through.
Percolation through an earth bank is prevented
by carefully preparing the foundations, to secure a
perfect union between the underlying earth and
the material placed upon it. All loose soil and
vegetal matter must be removed from the foun-
dation of the earth bank, and along the centre a
deep trench dug. This trench is then filled with
clay, carefully worked into place. This is designed
to cut off the water which otherwise might seep
beneath the foundations. The clay or puddled wall
is continued upward through the centre of the dam,
forming an impervious sheet, which prevents any
leaks from extending through to the lower side.
The preparation of this puddled wall requires great-
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXVII.
A. LOWER OTAY DAM, CALIFORNIA, SHOWING METHOD OF PRO-
TECTING STEEL PLATES.
B. CONSTRUCTION OF TIMBER DAM AT BLUE LAKES, CALIFORNIA.
EARTH DAMS. 167
est care and attention, as upon it depends largely
the safety of the structure. A leak once started
through an earth dam may enlarge rapidly, the
flowing water eating away the loose material with
increasing rapidity.
Ample provision must be made to prevent the
possibility of the water overtopping the bank at
any point, as this is easily eroded and would be
washed away in a few hours. To do this, a broad
wasteway is usually cut across' a portion of the
natural rim of the basin, this being several feet
lower than the top of the artificial bank. By pro-
viding a broad place of escape across hard, undis-
turbed material, a sudden flood can be released
before it overtops the embankment.
Outlets for such reservoirs are sometimes pro-
vided at the lowest point in the dam, especial care
being taken to make this point of weakness as
strong as possible. It has been found preferable
in some instances to tunnel through some other
part of the basin rather than to run the risk of
leakage around or along an outlet built in the arti-
ficial bank itself.
Earth reservoirs of large capacity have been
built in this way, and also innumerable small ponds
or tanks for stock water or for irrigating gardens
and orchards. These tanks are made from 100 to
500 feet in width, and are frequently filled with
water by means of one or more windmills, as
described on page 268. They are frequently made
1 68 IRRIGATION.
on the surface of the ground by scraping the earth
from the outside, depositing this carefully in lay-
ers, and wetting and rolling, or trampling, it firmly
into place. The banks thus built have a slope on
W//w//////W/M^^
FlG. 43. — Portion of earth reservoir showing outlet.
each side of at least \\ or 2 feet horizontal to I ver-
tical. The layers of dirt are so placed as to be lower
in the centre of the wall, the finer material being,
if possible, kept here as each layer is put into place
or still better, a puddled wall of clay is put through
the centre of the dirt bank.
These tanks may be either circular or rectan-
gular in outline. An outlet is usually provided at
the lowest point by inserting a substantial masonry
or tile drain with gate, or a stout wooden box, care
being taken to compact the earth around the out-
let.
Frequently when a small reservoir of this kind
has been completed, it leaks so rapidly that the
water disappears before it can be used. It is then
necessary to puddle the bottom with fine earth or
clay, sometimes straw and stable manure being
used. Cattle, horses, sheep, or goats are turned
into the reservoir, and are fed there or kept moving
SMALL EARTH RESERVOIRS.
169
around, trampling the muddy bottom until it has
been completely worked over. In this way it is
soon rendered water-tight, especially if fine silt or
muddy water is kept in the reservoir for some time.
f^^
FlG. 44. — Portion of earth reservoir showing inlet.
The illustrations, Figs. 45, 49, and 50, show
easily constructed devices for an outlet and gate
for one of these small reservoirs. It is usual to
construct this outlet of boards or plank, in the form
of a long box from 8 to 18 inches in width and
height. For permanence it is preferable to use a
FIG. 45. — Section of reservoir bank showing outlet.
pipe of metal or cement, but the cheaper wooden
outlet will suffice for a number of years. Around
this outlet the clay and fine earth is very carefully
packed to prevent leaks. On the upper end of
the outlet is placed some form of gate or a simple
I/O IRRIGATION.
hinged cover, as shown in Fig. 45, with a
handle reaching above the water to a point con-
venient of access.
The top of these reservoir banks is usually made
at least 2 feet in width. If, therefore, the bank is
to be 5 feet high, the slopes on each side should
extend out at least J\ feet, making the width of the
bank at the bottom 17 feet. Earth for building
the wall should not, as a rule, be taken from inside
the reservoir, as this disturbs the natural surface
and tends to increase th'e leaks.
The banks of reservoirs made of earth must be
protected from washing by the waves, by being
covered either with sod in the case of small tanks
or ponds on a farm, as shown in PI. XLIII, or
with a heavy, well-laid revetment of stone for
larger works. An efficient form of protection is
made by roughly weaving willow twigs into a mat
held in place by stone or earth. In course of time
the willows take root and hold the bank from
erosion.
HYDRAULIC DAMS.
An ingenious method of constructing earth dams
for reservoirs has been practised in the West, the
method being suggested by the operations of the
miners for placer gold. Small particles of this
precious metal have been found scattered through
gravels which formerly were a portion of ancient
stream channels. To obtain these small flakes or
larger nuggets the gravel is washed, the heavy
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXVIII.
A. BUILDING DAM BY HYDRAULIC PROCESS AT SANTA FE, NEW
MEXICO, SHOWING HYDRAULIC GIANT IN USE.
B. BUILDING DAM BY HYDRAULIC PROCESS AT SANTA FE, NEW
MEXICO, SHOWING OUTLET PIPE.
HYDRAULIC DAMS. 171
particles settling, and the gold being caught in
blankets or seized upon by mercury suitably held
in tiny pockets beneath the moving stream of water
carrying the sand and gravel. To bring the gravel
to the point where the gold can be obtained it has
been customary to arrange devices by which a
column of water under heavy pressure can be
directed against the bank or deposit where the
gold is supposed to exist. By means of ditches,
flumes, or other conduits, water is brought from
some mountain stream and led out to a point where
it can be conducted by a pipe downhill, finally ter-
minating in a nozzle, forming part of what is known
as a "giant" The stream directed by the giant
strikes with tremendous force, as shown on Pis.
XXVIII, A, and XXIX, cutting its way into hills
of sand, clay, and small boulders, tearing these out
and throwing them aside, the waste water washing
them away and assorting the material according to
its size and weight.
In placer mining the debris thus resulting was
formerly allowed to accumulate in the stream chan-
nels, and, being washed down by floods, was piled
up in the lower valleys, filling the beds of the
streams, interfering with navigation, and causing
the rivers to overflow their banks, carrying mud,
sand, and often stones far out over fertile land
and ruining thousands of farms. Because of the
destruction thus wrought, this form of mining
has been prohibited by law, except in localities
1/2 IRRIGATION,
where the debris can be impounded and kept away
from the rivers.
The amount of material transported in this way
is very great, and it occurred to engineers that
this method might be put to other purposes. Ac-
cordingly, instead of turning the debris loose to
follow the stream channels, it has been carefully
conducted to the designated spot, and the accumu-
lation there so arranged that a symmetrical pile
will be formed of any desired shape. For example,
if an earth dam is to be built, the material rolled
along by the water is carried in suitable flumes to
the selected spot. On leaving the flume the small
boulders and coarse gravel are at once deposited ;
the sand flows on farther, and the fine mud is
carried in suspension for considerable distances.
It is thus possible to deposit the coarse gravel on
the outer slope of the dam, and, by raising the
sides, cause the finer material to be laid down in
the centre of the dam, thus making a uniform
gradation in coarseness from a central impervious
wall of clay out to the heavy coating of gravel on
the upper and lower side of the dam. The sym-
metrical form can be easily preserved by shifting
the point of outlet, and thus a structure is made
of the exact shape called for by the plans. The
material, being deposited under water, is thoroughly
compacted, and there is less danger of settlement
or of porous layers being formed than in the case
of dirt placed by carts or scrapers.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXIX.
EXCAVATING DEEP CUT FOR CANAL BY HYDRAULIC PROCESS.
HYDRAULIC DAMS. 173
The speed and small cost at which material can
thus be moved are extraordinary, the actual expense
being stated to be from four to eight cents or more
per cubic yard, according to conditions or the ease
of obtaining the necessary proportion of clay, sand,
and gravel. A number of dams have been con-
structed in this way, the most notable being in
California and in Texas. In a few instances, par-
ticularly on the Canadian Pacific and Northern
Pacific railway, large cuts have been made through
hills of gravel and. clay, the material being washed
out and deposited to form embankments.
Plate XXVIII, A, illustrates the process of
breaking up the soil above and near a dam which
was begun near Santa Fe, New Mexico. The
stream from the hydraulic giant, after tearing out
the gravel, sand, and clay, washes these into pipes,
the lower of which is shown on the same plate at B.
Here the material is deposited to form the dam.
On the next illustration (PL XXIX) are shown
two streams making a cut through a ridge, this
being on the line of the Turlock Canal in Cali-
fornia. The cost of the excavation was 3 1 cents
per cubic yard, and this was reduced by the value
of the gold found, amounting to 4 cents per yard.
STORED WATERS.
The control of water which has been held in
reservoirs is, by custom and law, governed by regu-
lations different from those governing water taken
1/4 IRRIGATION.
directly from a flowing stream. It is considered
that the water thus held for a specific tract belongs
to the person or association owning the reservoir,
and is subject to the control of the owners. It is
not, strictly speaking, property, but the persons
owning the reservoir become owners of the water
only when it is segregated from the waters belong-
ing to the public and held for use on land, to which
the right to the use of the water attaches. Its com-
plete utilization is, moreover, to a large extent
dependent upon the situation of the reservoir with
respect to the lands to be irrigated.
Most reservoirs can be considered as belonging
to one or the other of two classes : those situated
near the head of the stream, and those lower down
upon the plains. The head-water reservoirs receive
their supply directly from melting snow or rain,
being for the most part located upon the upper
tributaries. Water from them must be taken back
into the natural channel, and, mingling with the
stream, flow downward for many miles, passing
the heads oi various ditches, until it reaches the
canal for which it is destined.
The other class of reservoirs are those among
the foothills or out on the plains where depres-
sions have been found suitable for holding water
in the vicinity of the irrigable farms. The supply
is taken to these by means of large feeder canals
heading on the river and receiving the flood flow
or the surplus at times when not needed for direct
STORED WATERS. 175
irrigation. From these low-lying reservoirs water
is conducted to the fields without mingling with
other water in a natural channel.
It is apparent that the control of these two
classes of works offers a wide difference in theory
and in practice. In the case of the high-level res-
ervoirs, the problem after the water is stored is to
get it safely to the land. With the low-level res-
ervoirs, on the contrary,. the chief difficulty is to
bring water into the reservoir. After it is there,
it may be considered as removed from interference.
As a rule, reservoirs are not built until after the
natural flow of a stream has been entirely appro-
priated and more land brought under irrigation
than can be supplied. Then comes a time when
water must be had and steps are taken to supply
the deficiency. If suitable sites are found on the
head waters, dams are built and water is held for
the benefit of the lands under a particular ditch, or
belonging to an association of farmers. When the
dry season of the year occurs, a quantity of water
is allowed to flow from the reservoir into the nat-
ural channel. If this channel were a closed pipe
with all outlets guarded, the same amount of water
could be taken out below that is turned in above ;
but, owing to evaporation and other causes, there
may be considerable losses along the stream, and
allowance must be made for these.
A further complication is that at this time of
year most of the ditches along the stream are
176 IRRIGATION.
short of water. Some of them claim the entire flow
of the stream at the point of diversion, and leave
their head gates open to catch occasional floods.
There is no way to distinguish the water which comes
from the reservoir from that of a local rainstorm,
and by accident, if not by design, much of this may
be taken at one point or another. Even if a ditch
has claim only to a certain volume of flow or a
certain portion of the stream, there is always oppor-
tunity for dispute as to the quantitative relation
which the stored water bears to the natural flow.
A condition frequently arises under which the
ditches heading highest on the river obtain by
chance more than their share of the natural flow
during the time when the water is coming from
the reservoir. The owners below endeavor to
take out the amount to which they are entitled, and
controversy at once arises whether the water at any
given point is stored water or the natural flow.
Unless every head gate is watched, there is a
tendency for the water from the reservoir to dis-
appear at one point or another. If belonging to
a ditch low on the river, very little of it comes
down. If, on the other hand, the owners succeed
in obtaining as high as 80 or 90 per cent of the
quantity turned out of the reservoir, their success
is usually due to the most strenuous exertions, and
is accompanied by the belief on the part of other
ditch owners that they have somehow been robbed
of what is due them.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXX.
i , f • ** ' • * -• . ... ;
SKYLINE CANAL, DIVERTING WATER ACROSS THE MOUNTAINS.
DISTRIBUTION OF STORED WATERS. 177
Because of the controversies involved, and the
practical difficulties of distributing waters stored in
the upper part of the catchment basin of a river
system, it is believed by many that such storage
should be permitted only for the benefit of all irri-
gators, and not for any particular owner or group
of farmers. Natural reservoir sites should be
dedicated to public use and the water held in them
employed in maintaining the flow of the stream
during the low season, being taken out in accord-
ance with local customs or equities. Only in this
way can the largest benefits result from works of
this character.
The supply for low-lying reservoirs is taken
from the natural streams by canals, which in one
sense compete with others along the river. These
canals may be employed during the irrigating
season to take water directly to the fields, and
when other ditches are closed they receive the
waste water and take it to the reservoirs, where it
is held over until times of need. In early spring,
also, they often carry water both to the reservoir
and to the fields when there is ample for both pur-
poses. Priorities to use of water for irrigation
and for storage are the cause of frequent disputes,
due to the gradually increasing demand for water
for direct irrigation, and the resulting encroach-
ments upon the quantities which previously have
been available for storage.
The available water supply along a stream may,
I ;8 IRRIGATION.
in some localities, be increased not only by stor-
age, but also by bringing, around or through a
divide, the head-water streams which flow in other
directions. For example, on the east side of the
Rocky Mountains, in Colorado, all of the water is
needed for irrigation. On the west side the
streams are more than sufficient to supply the,
land in the narrow valleys. In a number of cases
ditches have been taken from some stream flowing
westerly, and these have been carried around or
by tunnels through rocky spurs, dropping water
finally on the east side of the range and thus
increasing the flow. Occasionally this has been
done to the detriment of irrigators lower down the
stream thus diverted, but, as a rule, works of this
character have been highly beneficial. One of
these ditches winding around the mountain sum-
mits is shown on the accompanying plate (XXX).
This is known as the Sky Line ditch, built at an
altitude of 10,000 feet, which takes water from one
of the upper tributaries of the Laramie River and
diverts it to Cache la Poudre Valley, Colorado.
CHAPTER VI.
METHODS OF IRRIGATION.
THE devices and structures described on pre-
ceding pages are for the purpose of bringing
water to the highest point of the field of the
farmer, so that he will be able to conduct this by
easy channels to the plants requiring moisture. The
methods of doing this are diverse, depending upon
the climate, soil, and crop, and especially upon
the skill and experience of the irrigator. In this
respect there has been little scientific information
available. While methods of conserving and con-
ducting water have been improved under the stimu-
lus of modern invention, the application of water
to the soil has been left to experience gained
largely by accident and through failure. There is
great need of long-continued systematic study and
acquisition of knowledge concerning the actual
effect which the water has upon the soil and upon
the plants. We can see the ultimate result, but
have only a vague conception of the steps by
which this result is produced.
Most of the farmers practising irrigation in the
United States use quantities of water far in excess
179
l8o IRRIGATION.
of those theoretically demanded or actually benefi-
cial to the crops. This is in line with the general
prodigality of pioneer life, and with the habits of
shiftlessness so easily acquired where an abundant
supply of water can be had. It is so much easier
to open the ditches and let the water flow freely
than it is to guard and guide each tiny rill, that
for economy of time and labor, if not from actual
indolence, the irrigator is apt to let the water go
its own way.
It is sometimes stated that irrigation is a lazy
man's way of cultivation. The reverse is the case
wherever the best results are obtained. Irrigation,
properly conducted, means intensive farming and
application of water with great care, followed by
thorough cultivation of the moistened soil.
Different plants require different amounts of
water. Some are satisfied with a very little.
Others require a great deal, and cannot do without
it. Still others are relatively indifferent as to
whether much or little water is applied ; they have
the habit of adjusting themselves to circumstances.
Each crop therefore has different needs, and the
practice of irrigation must vary accordingly.
It is not merely the character of the plant which
has to be considered, but also the quality of the
soil. Certain soils receive and transmit water with
great rapidity, — such, for example, as sand and
gravel. Others, like clay, take water slowly and hold
it with great tenacity. Thus the manner and time
NEED OF MOISTURE. 181
of irrigating certain plants will vary according to
the ability of the soil to hold and supply water as
needed. If the moisture escapes rapidly, as from
sand, the plant after a few days is not able to re-
ceive enough and begins to droop. On the other
hand, if the soil is very compact and the water is
held from escaping, the soil may become water-
logged, air cannot penetrate the interstices, and
the plant suffers from drowning.
There is still another factor in the production
of crops which must be considered besides sun-
shine, soil, and water. This is the low order
of vegetal life known as nitrifying organisms.
These, in the presence of air and moisture, manu-
facture food for the plant and are its servants in
preparing material upon which it thrives. A cer-
tain amount of water is needed for these nitrifying
organisms, but, on the other hand, too much water
stagnates and destroys them. Thus it is that
there is a very delicate adjustment to be preserved
in respect to the amount of moisture in order to
produce the best results. These conditions the
successful irrigator learns by experiment and fail-
ure, and unconsciously follows certain rules which
he is usually unable to put into words.
There has been very little progress in the prac-
tice of irrigation from the methods of ancient
times. This is due largely to the fact that the
men who are now bringing new lands under ditch
have for the most part received their training as
182 IRRIGATION.
farmers in humid regions, and find it difficult to un-
learn many of the facts which they regard as fun-
damental, and to reverse the habits of half a
lifetime. They hesitate to adopt the methods of
the Indians and . Mexicans, despising these as
crude or childish. Nevertheless, these primitive
peoples have, through the experience of genera-
tions, acquired certain ways which are worthy of
study, particularly in the direction of using the
smallest possible amount of water in oases on
the desert. When they have plenty of water, the
Mexicans use it wastefully ; but where the amount
is extremely limited, some of them, particularly
the agricultural Indians of the Southwest, have
acquired the art of utilizing every drop. Even the
drippings from the family water jar are arranged
to fall upon a growing plant, and the moist spots
are carefully guarded for the growing of corn or
beans.
The water having been brought to the field, the
farmer must first, in order to apply it successfully,
build small laterals or distributing ditches to direct
it toward the portions of his land where the plants
are being cultivated. For this purpose he ploughs
out a ditch or turns up two small parallel banks
of dirt, keeping the bottom of the ditch as near
the level of the ground as possible, in order that
water may flow out when the banks are cut. A
section of a small field ditch is shown in the ac-
companying figure (46), the sides being formed by
DISTRIBUTING DITCHES. 183
earth taken largely from outside the ditch in order
not to lower its bottom.
FlG. 46. — Section of small distriouting ditch.
It is frequently necessary to carry one of these
small laterals directly across a low portion of the
field, and for this purpose earth is banked up and
the two sides are raised slightly, making an ele-
vated ditch, as shown in Fig. 47. These are
usually constructed with plough and scraper, the
earth being carefully packed by trampling, in order
to prevent settling when the water is turned in.
FIG. 47. — Section of small raised ditch.
Occasionally the depression to be crossed is
quite deep, or is a ravine receiving storm waters,
which by the construction of the raised ditch
would be dammed back, and, accumulating, might
wash away the obstruction. To reduce the cost,
or to permit the passage of storm waters, small
flumes are built similar to those used on the main
1 84
IRRIGATION.
ditches and canals. The accompanying figure (48)
gives sections and elevation of some of the flumes
FIG. 48. — Sections and elevation of small flumes.
used on farm laterals. The section on the left
shows a V-shaped flume, built for economy of lum-
ber; the rectangular form is, however, more gen-
erally employed.
Water is taken from the main ditch into these
farm laterals, and from one lateral into another, by
FIG. 49. — Box for taking water from main ditch.
means of small gates or boxes. The crude
method is sometimes employed of simply cutting
the bank of a ditch by means of a shovel, and
DISTRIBUTING BOXES. 185
when sufficient water has been taken the hole is
filled again. Unless this is carefully done, how-
ever, there is liability of leaks, and the water may
wash out a large hole before it can be checked.
A simple form of gate or box is shown in Fig.
49. This is built of boards or plank, and has a
small sliding gate or shutter at the upper end.
These boxes should be bedded in clay carefully
packed to prevent leakage.
The details of the construction of a gate for one
of these lateral ditches or for a small earth reser-
voir are shown in Fig. 50, which gives the di-
mensions of the material used. The sliding faces,
where the gate is brought in contact with its bear-
ings, must be made smooth in order to be as
nearly water-tight as possible. Frequently leather
or rubber facing is used, in order to insure a more
perfect fit. In these illustrations only the more
simple devices are shown, those which are usually
constructed by the irrigator. More complicated
or machine-made gates and boxes may be pur-
chased from manufacturers, but these are only
employed after irrigation has developed beyond
its early stages. It is the home-made, somewhat
crude, devices which are used in conquering the
desert.
FLOODING IN CHECKS.
The simplest way to apply water to the soil is
that imitated from the operations of nature when
1 86
IRRIGATION.
a river overflows its banks. Water is spread over
the surface, and after this has drained away, plant
life starts into luxuriant growth. In a similar
FIG. 50. — Details of construction of box for distributing water.
manner, the irrigator may turn the water from a
ditch over a level field and completely submerge
it. Perfectly level fields are, however, compara-
tively rare, and the next step is to build a low
FLOODING IN CHECKS.
I87
ridge around two or three sides of a slightly slop-
ing field, so that water, when turned into it, is
ponded. These low banks are commonly known
as levees or checks. In construction they are
generally laid out at right angles, dividing the
land into a number of compartments, as shown
on PL XXXI, A, each usually lying at an elevation
which differs slightly from that of the others.
Water is turned from the ditch into the highest
FIG. 51. — Portion of field divided by rectangular levees.
of these compartments, and when the ground is
flooded the bank of the lower side is cut and the
water passes into the next field, and so on until
each in turn is watered.
This flooding in rectangular checks is practised
most largely by the Mexicans living along the Rio
Grande in New Mexico and in adjacent portions
of the Southwest. These farmers follow the exam-
ple of their ancestors and subdivide the land into
little rectangles, often not more than a rod or two
188
IRRIGATION.
iMiliMiliifiliiljilillliipimiilii^
^iMWWHiltiW^ ;|
M
I.
i §
:"= s
long on each side. The banks are thrown up with
spade or shovel, and the ground between the banks
is tilled with a heavy spade or mattock. The
grain when ripe is
PL AM
reaped by hand,
and, in short, in
all of their opera-
tions .the greatest
imaginable labor
is expended. Wa-
ter, when had in
abundance, is
turned into these
checks, and the
quantities used
are often ex-
tremely large.
The accom-
panying figure
(52) gives a plan
of two rectangu-
lar fields con-
nected by a gate
set in the levee,
so that water can
be turned from
one field into the
other without cutting the banks. This represents
a field in southern Arizona, the sides being from
20 to 60 feet in length, and the ridges 10 inches
«
II
11
I I
iiiiuiftliiMiiiiiflliiiilliiillillililllliiiilliiiliillliirtliiiii^ |
Cross Sect/on on a - b.
FlG. 52. — Application of water
by the block system.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXXI.
A. FIELD PREPARED IN RECTANGULAR CHECKS.
B. IRRIGATION BY CHECKS IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.
RECTANGULAR CHECKS. 189
in height. Alfalfa and other forage crops are
grown in such fields.
Many of the early settlers in the Southwest imi-
tated the Mexicans, or employed them as laborers,
building checks upon the same general plan, but
usually enclosing more ground. Fields of from
one acre to twenty acres or more in area have been
levelled and surrounded by low levees, from I to
2 feet in height and 5 to 10 feet in width. These
are made relatively wide at the bottom, in order
that the slopes may be gentle, so that mowing
machines can be driven over them.
Figure 53 illustrates a modification of this
method used in New Mexico. Water is let into
the first check-bed from the lateral ditch by means
of a box or gate, or by making an opening in the
bank with a large hoe. When the first bed is
covered, the lower side of the border i« opened,
and so on until each has been flooded. In prac-
tice a number of these beds are irrigated simul-
taneously, water being let into the rectangles
numbered i, 5, 9, and 13 simultaneously, and then
into the beds below them.
Another method of procedure with these beds
is to let the water flow through the upper until the
lowest is covered to a depth of about 3 inches,
then obstruct the opening to this bed and permit
the water to accumulate in the next square above,
and so on, filling each in succession from the low-
est to the highest and allowing the water to soak
190
IRRIGATION.
away. It is claimed that by following this course
the land receives water more uniformly.
For crops, such as tomatoes, sweet potatoes,
and chili — one of the most important foods of
Lai-era/
«i>-mmmtmim>m>iniu»m»i
31 , „„„,„
FIG. 53. — Flooding in rectangular checks.
the Mexicans — and for similar plants raised in
ridges, a modification is introduced, as shown in
squares 2, 3, and 4. Ridges are made in the beds
RIDGES IN CHECKS.
191
in such a form that the water is compelled to flow
around and along these until the bed is filled
nearly to the top of the ridges ; then it is let into
Main Ditch
• l
V — * ^"i^1
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1 i
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uiiiiiniiiliiinuuiiniii niiniiiii
umw aimniiifflmiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiis pminiiu
>^< I
I
"™ |
J L
iiitnuiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiii niiitiiiHiiiiii iiiiiiiniiiiiffliiiiiiiiiiiuiii
JL
JL. .
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiigiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiniiiiuiiii
•* r
iiniiiuii |iiiiiiiiniiiiiiiH:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiwiiiii
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5
§
JL
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I
I
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JL
minimi IIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
j L
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, =,„ „„„„„,„„
FlG. 54. — Plan of irrigated garden divided into compartments or checks.
the npxt bed and the operation is repeated. Chi-
nese gardeners also follow this plan.
Instead of turning the water from one bed into
IQ2 IRRIGATION.
another, it is sometimes customary to provide
lateral ditches in such form that the water can
flow into each compartment without passing through
the other, as illustrated in Fig. 54. In this way
washing of the soil is prevented, and the amount
can be regulated with great care for each variety
of crop.
On land nearly level, but with small inequalities,
it has been customary to smooth these off by plough
and scraper, or by dragging a heavy iron beam
across the field, pulling the hummocks into the
hollows. The cost of levelling is usually very great,
and it is only for the most valuable crops and or-
chards that this is done. Where the undulations
are of such an extent that they cannot be removed
by this method, it is necessary, in order to practise
check flooding, to adjust the shape of the banks
or levees to suit these conditions. Instead of mak-
ing them rectangular, the levees are built along the
slopes to fit the contour of the surface. The ac-
companying figure (55) shows how these levees are
built along a side-hill slope, and PL XXXI, /?, illus-
trates a portion of one of these on irregular ground.
The canal brings water to the upper side of the
field and follows along on a gentle grade. Below
this, at a distance such that a bank a foot or two
in height will pond the water back to the side of
the canal, a ridge is built. The distance of this
ridge from the canal will depend, of course, upon
the slope of the ground ; if very gentle, the bank
CHECKS ON SLOPING LAND.
193
or levee can be 100 feet or more away, while with
steeper slopes it must be nearer. A series of such
check levees follow, in their course approximately
Cffoss seen OH ON a~b
FiG. 55. — Checks on sloping land.
paralleling that of the canal, and make a number
of strips, each successively lower, as shown by the
section from a to b. Water is let into these strips
by means of small distributary ditches, as shown
in the illustration.
WATERING BY FURROWS.
The system of flooding in checks, although origi-
nally practised to considerable extent in the South-
194 IRRIGATION.
west, has gradually been given up, owing to the
expense of levelling and leveeing the ground. With
experience and acquired skill the irrigator has be-
come able to apply water with economy without
resorting to such expensive means. This is particu-
larly true in the application of water to crops which
are cultivated in furrows, as, for example, corn and
potatoes. The furrows are ploughed in such a direc-
tion that a little stream will flow freely down them
without washing away the soil.
Water is taken from the main canal, which fol-
lows approximately the contour of the surface, into
the distributing ditches, which may be parallel with
the canal or diverge from it. If the land is nearly
flat, the furrows can be run directly away from the
distributing ditch from the higher to the lower side
of the field. If, however, as shown in the accom-
panying figure (56), the slopes are steep, the furrows
must be ploughed diagonally to the slope, so as to
reduce the velocity of the little rills.
Water is turned into a half dozen or more of
these furrows, and makes its way gradually toward
the lower end. As soon as it has reached this
point, the stream is cut off and turned into another
set of furrows, and so on until all have been filled.
The slope given the furrows determines to a certain
extent the amount of water received by the soil. If
the fall is very gentle the water moves slowly and
a large portion sinks in while the furrow is being
filled; if steep, the water quickly passes to the
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXXII.
..,**- ^ '•^"'iaSywHt'
A. CANVAS DAM IN TEMPORARY DITCH.
IRRIGATING A YOUNG ALFALFA FIELD.
FURROW IRRIGATION.
195
lower end and the ground does not have time to
absorb as much.
When the entire field has been watered and the
surface has become sufficiently dry for cultivation,
FIG. 56. — Application of water by furrows.
the furrows are usually ploughed out and a thin layer
of the top soil is stirred to make an open porous cov-
ering or mulch, preventing excessive evaporation
and allowing the air to enter the ground. Without
such cultivation a hard crust may be formed, which,
although retarding circulation and apparently im-
pervious, yet permits continual evaporation. The
loosening of this crust breaks the capillary connec-
tion with the moisture beneath, and thus lessens the
loss of water.
The fields of small grain, after sowing, are usually
rolled with a device known as a marker. This con-
sists of a heavy roller upon which are projections
196 IRRIGATION.
so arranged as to make small parallel furrows.
These are rolled in the direction of the desired
slope, so that the water can flow down the marks
through the grain, as it would in furrows through a
corn field. The rapidly growing grain shades the
surface, and prevents the formation of crust, render-
ing subsequent cultivation unnecessary even if it
were practicable. Instead of a roller various de-
vices are used to make these small furrows, the
object being to provide channels for evenly distrib-
uting the water.
The ditches are ploughed through the fields and
water is forced out of them either by putting in
temporary obstructions of dirt, boards, or sheet
metal or by a small canvas dam. This latter con-
FIG. 57. — Water turned from furrow by canvas dam.
sists of a piece of stout cloth, one edge of which is
tacked to a stick long enough to extend across the
lateral ditch or furrow. The canvas, falling into
the furrow, fits the sides and bottoms, and is held
in place by a clod of dirt thrown upon it. Water
TAPPOONS.
197
meeting the obstruction still further forces the can-
vas down, making a fairly tight dam, against which
it accumulates and overflows into the field, as shown
by Fig. -57. After sufficient water has been turned
out at this point, the canvas dam (Fig. 58) is pulled
up and carried farther down the ditch, where it is
again placed in it and another section of the field is
irrigated. This method is illustrated in PL XXXII.
\
FIG. 58. — Canvas dam.
A drawing of a canvas dam is shown in Fig. 58.
There are also given (in Figs. 59 and 60) illustra-
tions of different forms of simple devices for con-
trolling the water flowing in furrows and small
ditches, known as tappoons, a word in common use
in the Southwest, but not generally employed out-
side of southern California and Arizona. In Fig.
59 are shown two forms of metal tappoons, these
having an oval or rounded outline in order to fit
into the furrows. The sheet of metal is pressed
down into the soft soil, obstructing the flow. The
tappoon is sometimes strengthened by means of a
central rib or pin, which projects below, as shown in
198
IRRIGATION.
the left-hand drawing, and prevents the tappoon
from being washed out.
FIG. 59. — Metal tappoons.
These tappoons sometimes consist merely of a
board of sufficient width to extend across the
furrow. In case it is desired to
let a certain* amount of water
pass this point, one or more
holes are bored in the tappoon,
these being closed by a plug
when not in use.
FIG. 60. —Wooden
tappoon provided
with outlets.
FIG. 61. — Metal tappoon with measuring
gate.
A more elaborate device of this character is
shown in Fig. 61, being a small portable metal
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXXIII.
WILD FLOODING. 199
dam or tappoon, with a rectangular opening for
measuring roughly a certain quantity of water.
This can be provided with a sliding door or gate,
permitting the passage of a stream of water of a
given number of square inches. If the pressure is
maintained at from 4 to 6 inches above the centre
of the opening, the delivery can be computed in
miner's inches.
WILD FLOODING.
With care it may be possible to dispense with
checks or furrows and to apply water with con-
siderable uniformity. For grass land, clover, al-
falfa, and similar forage plants it is not feasible to
provide furrows, and water must be applied by
what is usually known as " wild flooding." That
is to say, it is led to the upper part of the field and
there turned loose in such a way as to cover the
surface with a thin^ layer. Much care is required
to do this, far more than when checks or furrows
have been made. To get the water to the right
places it is usual to provide through the fields
shallow depressions which serve to guide the
water. From these it spreads out in thin sheets.
The system is illustrated by accompanying dia-
grams, in which the attempt is made to exhibit the
distributing laterals through the fields and the
course taken by the water in coming from these.
In Fig. 62 the broken lines are contours, or
points of equal elevation. The supply ditch is
2OO
IRRIGATION.
seen following along one of these, with gradually
descending grade. From this are laterals or tem-
porary ditches following down the leading ridges.
On each side of these temporary ditches are
slight elevations of the nature of check levees,
FIG. 62. — Plan of wild flooding.
which tend to throw the water outward along the
contours. Spreading along above these, the water
gradually overflows and finds its way down the
slope in a sheet or numerous rills, as indicated by
the irregular lines.
In order to thoroughly wet the field, the irrigator
UNDULATING LANDS.
201
takes advantage of all the smaller ridges or in-
equalities, running the water out upon these, and
not allowing it to escape into the depressions until
it has thoroughly wet the surface. Not all the
water will soak .into the ground, and the excess
FIG. 63. — Plan of distributing water on rolling lands.
which collects in the depressions is again con-
ducted out along contours to the next lower
series of ridges. The general theory of applying
water is shown by Fig. 63, where the temporary
ditch is subdivided to flow around the head of a
slight depression. The direction of the arrows
202
IRRIGATION.
shows the way in which the streams of water are
supposed to be distributed, gradually vanishing into
the grass land or cultivated field. A portion of
the stream reappears in the depressions, as in-
dicated by the line and arrows in the centre of
the drawing. This stream, when it attains consid-
erable size, is gradually conducted out and used on
lower portions of the field.
ORCHARDS AND VINEYARDS.
In the localities where the best orchards and
vineyards are located, usually water is in greatest
^
FlG. 64. — Box for distributing water in an orchard.
demand, and extraordinary care must be taken to
secure economy in its use. The necessary supply
PLATE XXXIV.
. FURROW IRRIGATION OF VINES.
B. FURROW IRRIGATION OF ORCHARD.
ORCHARDS AND VINEYARDS. 203
is conducted, often by cement-lined ditches and by
wooden flumes, as near as possible to the trees and
vines, and is then turned out into furrows between
the trees as shown on PL XXXIII. One of these
boxes or flumes is shown in the drawing (Fig. 64).
The water, issuing from small apertures in the side
of a wooden box, falls into the furrows and is
immediately conducted to the vicinity of the trees.
FlG. 65. — Outlet from side of small flume.
The accompanying illustration (Fig. 65) shows
the outlet from the side of one of these small
flumes or distributing boxes. These small gates
are placed at intervals of from 3 to 5 feet or more,
and a number of them are opened at a time, each
delivering water into a furrow. These furrows
having received a sufficient quantity, the small
gates are closed and another set opened.
Some irrigators still adhere to the method of irri-
204
IRRIGATION.
gating trees in small pools or basins, although this
is not regarded as desirable because of the ten-
dency of the roots under these conditions to de-
velop near the surface. It is claimed, however.,
that water can be more economically used in this
way. The following figure (66), made from a pho-
tograph taken in an orchard near Los Angeles,
FIG. 66. — Orchard irrigation by pools.
California, shows the lower end of a system of
small basins into which an orchard is divided.
The soil on the side-hills is often excellent in
quality for the production of fruits, and the ele-
vated portions of a valley are frequently freer
from frosts than the bottom lands. For this rea-
son orchards have been set out on sloping lands,
and methods of irrigation have been adapted to
the ground. The next figure (67) shows one
SIDE-HILL WATERING.
205
of the ways in which a small stream of water is
conducted down the slope. If allowed to flow
freely this would wash for itself a deep channel.
It is therefore confined in a small wooden flume,
dropping vertically at short intervals. Along the
horizontal portions of the flume small outlets are
arranged, and water is taken from these into fur-
rows leading along the contour of the ground.
FIG. 67. — Irrigation on slope with stepped flume.
Care is usually taken that the water shall not
actually touch the tree trunks ; it is kept far
enough away to wet the ground within the radius
of the roots, to encourage these to spread out-
wardly as far as possible. After the water has
traversed the furrows through trie orchard until it
has reached the far end, the supply is cut off, and
the ground is tilled as soon as the surface dries
sufficiently.
206 IRRIGATION.
On PI. XXXIV are given two views, the upper
one, A, being of furrow irrigation of vines, and the
lower, B, of similar methods of irrigating a young
orchard. In both of these views water is shown
as applied lavishly, especially in the lower, where
the soil is apparently being washed away. Such
use of water is possible only where large amounts
are to be had, although even where there are small
quantities it is sometimes economical to store this
in small tanks or reservoirs and run out a large
volume at once, in order to give the ground a
thorough wetting ; by so doing the water can be
distributed more uniformly to all parts of the or-
chard. The course of the water is being directed
by the irrigators, who by means of long-handled
shovels keep the furrows open or close them by
throwing in clods of earth, constant attention being
given to the course of the water, so that it will not
accumulate in depressions.
The next view, PI. XXXV, shows a young or-
chard for which a distributing system, designed
for permanence and economy of water, has been
constructed. The distributing ditch is of cement
and is provided with a series of drops or small falls
and gates by which the water can be raised and
forced to flow out through small apertures in the
sides. The character of the cultivation which fol-
lows the application of water is shown by a view
of a more mature orchard, PL XXXVI.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXXV.
USE OF TILES. 207
SUBIRRIGATION.
In order to reach still greater economy, attempts
have been made to conduct the water beneath the
surface immediately to the roots of the trees, thus
preventing waste by evaporation from the surface
of the ground. Various devices have been tried,
but few of these have been successful, owing to the
fact that the roots of the trees rapidly seek out
the source of water and develop there, entering
the openings from which the water issues, or sur-
rounding the pipe by a dense network. Porous
clay tiling has been laid through orchards, and also
iron pipes perforated so as to furnish a supply of
water along their length. A machine for mak-
ing cement pipe in place has also been invented
and successfully used. Small trenches are dug
through the orchard between the trees, and the
pipe-making machine deposits the material in the
trench, which is filled as soon as the cement is
set. Water is thus distributed underground where
needed.
In a number of orchards where the subsurface
irrigation has been unsuccessful because of the
roots stopping up minute openings beneath the
surface, the system has been reconstructed and
water brought to the surface at or near each tree
by means of small hydrants, shown in Fig. 68.
Vertical pipes are placed at short intervals, leading
to the level of the ground, and in these are small
208
IRRIGATION
iron gates or shutters so arranged that the flow
can be cut off in the buried pipe. Pushing down
one of these gates, the water rises and overflows
the surface until a sufficient amount has been
obtained. This gate is then raised and the next
is pushed down, and so on until water has been
caused to overflow at each point in succession
down the slope of the ground.
FlG. 68. — Pipes and hydrants for distributing water in an orchard.
For annual or root crops subirrigation has been
successfully practised by the use of the small
perforated pipes, which allow a small amount of
water to escape at short intervals. These pipes
are laid 12 inches or more beneath the surface, and
are connected with lines of tile leading from the
reservoir or source of supply. As the crops are
removed each year and the ground cultivated, the
roots do not have an opportunity of entering and
stopping the pipes.
SUBIRRIGATION SYSTEM.
209
340 FT. LONG
3in.
inch form drain tile u/ithout socket
The accompanying illustration (Fig. 69) is a
plan of one of the small systems of subirrigation
devised and successfully used by a Kansas farmer,
and is given as being typical of a number of de-
vices of this kind. The 3-inch tiles are laid 15
inches below the
surface and 10
feet apart. The
joints are closed
with cement,
with the excep-
tion of about an
inch on the un-
der side of the
tiles, a small
amount of water
escaping at this
point. In the
construction 2\
acres were laid
and cemented in
ten days. Water FIG. 69. — Plan of subirrigating system.
is supplied to the
tiling at the rate of about 20 gallons per minute.
The grade is such that the tiling acts as a drain if
at any time too much water is received from
rainfall. The success of such an undertaking
depends largely upon the character of the sub-
soil, as well as of the soil itself. If the subsoil is
extremely porous, the water may sink away with-
210 IRRIGATION.
out reaching the surface. Where the structure
is such that the water is transmitted horizontally,
these systems of subirrigation have been used to
great advantage.
A common mistake made in constructing these
subirrigation systems has consisted in giving the
pipes an inclination so great that the water runs
immediately to the lower .end, and does not sat-
urate the ground uniformly. The pipes should
be laid nearly horizontal. Sometimes the pipes
have been buried too deep in a clayey subsoil and
the water would not spread laterally until the
pipes were raised nearer the surface.
For the purpose of subirrigating, tile is preferred,
as being permanent, but other material has been
used, such, for example, as
galvanized sheet iron, this
being laid with an open seam
at the bottom, as shown in
Fig. 70. The opening is
made smaller than indicated
by the drawing, so that the
water will not escape with
too great rapidity. In a
number °f insta»ces the
increased yield of a single
crop has more than repaid the cost of a sub-
irrigation system. Where the conditions are favor-
able the economy resulting in distribution of water
in this way is very great. There is no loss by
NATURAL SUBIRRIGATION. 211
direct evaporation or by wetting soil at a distance
from the growing plants.
The term " subirrigation " is occasionally applied
to conditions occurring in nature such that water
percolates freely beneath the surface of the ground
for considerable distances in a sheet sufficiently
near the surface to supply the need of crops. The
ground is not actually saturated, but sufficient mois-
ture is transmitted to nourish the plants without
drowning or waterlogging the soil. These sub-
irrigated areas, so-called, are often located in broad
valleys along a stream from which the water finds
its way outward beneath the surface. They are
also occasionally found upon gentle side slopes, the
moisture coming from some stream or canyon and
tending to form springs near the edge of the valley.
Where the subsoil has a texture such that it
transmits water freely, the building of irrigation
ditches may subirrigate large tracts of country
without rendering them marshy. Such conditions
are found, for example, in the vicinity of St. Anthony,
Idaho, where certain farms obtain an ample supply
of water from ditches a half mile or more away,
without the necessity of distributing small streams
over the surface. Also in the vicinity of Fresno,
California, vineyards are maintained in good con-
dition, although water has not been visibly applied
for many years. The closing of the ditches would,
however, result in gradual drying up of the ground,
and the farmers benefited by subirrigation must
212 IRRIGATION.
of necessity pay their share of the cost of main-
taining the ditches, although they do not receive
water directly.
This process of subirrigation gradually merges
into swampy conditions, and it occasionally happens
that the lower part of a subirrigated field must be
drained to remove the excess of water. This can
be done either by gravity ditches or by pumping
devices, sometimes the water in the ditches being
utilized to actuate water wheels, each in turn oper-
ating suitable machinery for taking the excess from
the low points. Where electric power can be had
at small cost, pumps have been erected to bring
the excess water from underground and make it
available for the irrigation of fields otherwise dry.
In portions of the San Joaquin valley of California,
where electric transmission lines have been con-
structed leading from the water power stations in
the canyons, small centrifugal pumps are thus util-
ized, the motor being on the upper end of the
shaft carrying the pump. Lands can thus be
drained and water provided for use elsewhere.
Even in localities where the water is 20 or 30 feet
or more beneath the surface, it has been pumped
by electric power at a cost far less than is paid for
the ordinary gravity supply.
AMOUNT OF WATER APPLIED.
The amount of water required for raising crops
varies according to soil and other conditions, as
WATER NEEDED FOR AN ACRE. 213
noted on a preceding page. The plant itself needs
a certain minimum supply in order to receive and
assimilate its food and to keep up transpiration.
A far larger quantity is required to saturate the
surrounding soil to such a degree that the vital-
izing processes can continue. The soil is con-
stantly losing water by evaporation and by seepage,
so that the amount which the plant takes from
it is relatively small. Nevertheless, the moisture
must be maintained within narrow limits in order
to produce the most favorable conditions of plant
growth.
Experiments have been made to determine
exactly how much water is needed in order to
keep the soil in proper condition for plants of dif-
ferent character. Among the most important
investigations are those by Professor F. H. King
of Madison, Wisconsin, who has found by direct
measurement that from 300 to 500 pounds of water
are required for each pound of dry matter pro-
duced. In other words, for each ton of hay raised
upon an acre 300 to 500 tons of water must be
furnished either by rainfall or by artificial means.
Water covering an acre one inch in depth
weighs about 113 tons, and to produce one ton of
hay the depth of water required is approximately
from 3 to 5 inches. It is necessary to furnish at
least this amount, and sometimes several times as
much, in order to produce a crop. The actual
amount used in producing 5 tons of barley hay
214 IRRIGATION.
to the acre has been about 20 inches in depth.
Much depends upon the permeability of the soil,
and its ability to hold water.
The quantity of water used in irrigation is usu-
ally stated in one of two ways — either (i) in terms
of depth of water on the surface, or (2) in quan-
tities of flowing water through the irrigating sea-
son. The first method is preferable, since it is
susceptible of more definite consideration, and is
also more convenient for comparison with figures
for rainfall, which are given in inches of depth. In
the humid regions rainfall is usually from 3 to 4
inches per month during the crop season. In the
arid region, where the sunlight is more continuous
and the evaporation greater, there should be, for
the ordinary crops at least, enough water during
the growing season to cover the ground from 4 to
6 inches in depth each month. Carefully tilled
orchards have been maintained on far less. In
Arizona, where the crop season is longest, being
practically continuous throughout the year, twice
as much water is needed as in Montana, where the
crop season is short and the evaporation is less.
The second method of stating the quantities
necessary for irrigation is of convenience when
considering a stream upon which there is no stor-
age. It is frequently estimated that one cubic foot
per second, or second-foot, flowing through an irri-
gating season of 90 days, will irrigate 100 acres.
One second-foot will cover an acre nearly 2 feet
WETTING NEW LANDS. 215
deep during 24 hours, and in 90 days it will cover
1 80 acres I foot in depth, or 100 acres to a depth
of 1.8 feet, or 21.6 inches. This is equivalent to
a depth of water of a little over 7 inches per
month. In several of the states laws or regula-
tions have been made to the effect that in appor-
tioning water not less than 66J acres shall be
allowed to the second-foot of continuous flow.
This is extremely liberal, and permits extravagant
use of water.
When the ground is first irrigated enormous
quantities of water must sometimes be used in
order to saturate the subsoil. It has frequently
happened that, during the first year or two, a quan-
tity of water which would cover the ground to a
depth of 10 to 20 feet has been turned upon the
surface. Frequently for several years an amount
equal to a depth of 5 feet or more per annum is
thus employed. Gradually, however, the dry soil
is filled, and, as stated in another place, the water
table is raised nearer the surface, less and less
water being needed.
The farmers, being accustomed to the use of
large quantities of water, often find it exceedingly
difficult to get along with less, and continue to use
excessive amounts, often to their own disadvantage.
They are actuated in part by the consideration that,
having paid for the use of the water, they are
entitled to a certain quantity, and fear that if they
do not take all of this their claim to it may be dis-
2l6 IRRIGATION.
puted. Some of them actually waste water to
their own detriment from the mistaken belief that
in so doing they are establishing a perpetual right
to certain quantities.
With the gradual development of the country and
the bringing of more and more land under ditches,
the need for water increases, and equity demands
that no irrigator shall take more than he can put
to beneficial use. Flowing water must be consid-
ered as a common fund, subject to beneficial use*by
individuals according to orderly rules, each man
taking only the amount he can employ to advan-
tage. Under any other theory full development
of arid regions is impossible.
It is instructive in this connection to know what
is the least amount of water which has been used
with success. To learn this, it is necessary to go
to Southern California, where, as stated on previous
pages, the supply of water is least, relative to the
demand made upon it, and the economy is corre-
spondingly greatest. Successive years of deficient
rainfall in California, from 1897 to 1900, while
working many hardships, served to prove that with
careful cultivation crops, orchards, and vineyards
could be maintained on a very small amount of
water. In some cases an amount not exceeding
six inches in depth of irrigation water was applied
during the year, this being conducted directly to
the plants, and the ground kept carefully tilled
and free from weeds.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXXVI.
DROUGHT CONDITIONS. 217
During these times of drought some fruits,, as,
for example, grapes, apples, olives, peaches, and
apricots, were raised without irrigation, but a most
thorough cultivation, as shown on PL XXXVI, was
practised. Some fruit growers insist that, in the
case of grapes, for example, the quality is better
when raised without artificially applying water,
although the quantity is less. It has been stated
that in raisin-making there is less contrast than
might be expected between the irrigated and non-
irrigated vineyards, for although the yield of grapes
raised by watering is far heavier, yet after drying
the difference is not so marked. Wheat and barley,
also, according to some farmers, make a better hay
when cultivated dry, but the weight is less. Shade
trees, such, for example, as the eucalyptus or Aus-
tralian blue-gum, the catalpa, mulberry, and acacia,
grow without water artificially applied, but do not
reach the extraordinary development that they do
when near irrigating ditches. It is almost useless
to attempt to raise the citrus fruits without plenty
of water.
The quantity of water necessary to irrigate an
acre, as estimated by various water companies in
Southern California, ranges from I miner's inch to
5 acres to I miner's inch to 10 acres, the miner's
inch in this connection being defined as a quantity
equalling 12,960 gallons in 24 hours, or almost
exactly 0.02 second-foot, this being the amount
which has been delivered under a 4-inch head,
218 IRRIGATION.
measured from the centre of the opening. Under
this assumption I second-foot should irrigate from
250 to 500 acres. This is on the basis of delivering
the water in pipes or cemented channels in the im-
mediate vicinity of the trees or vines to be irrigated.
If it is assumed that I miner's inch is allowed
for 10 acres, or I second-foot for 500 acres, this
quantity of water flowing from May to October,
inclusive, will cover the ground to a depth of a
little over T7^ of a foot, or 8.8 inches, a quantity
which, with the care and cultivation usually em-
ployed, has been found to be sufficient for some
orchards. Mr. W. Irving, Chief Engineer of the
Gage Canal, Riverside, California, states that for
the year ending September 30, 1899, water ranging
in depth from 1.78 to 2.48 feet was used in addi-
tion to the rainfall of 0.47 foot. This was less
than the usual quantity, economy being enforced
by shortage of supply.
The method of applying water governs to a
large extent the amount used. In the case of
alfalfa, flooding is usually practised ; with small
grains in most parts of the West the water is run
in furrows ; while in the case of orchards the water
is sometimes applied directly to each tree. In
this case a little earth basin, about 6 feet or more
across and 6 inches deep, is formed around each
tree and partially filled with water as shown in
Fig. 66. The better way, however, is that of run-
ning water in furrows, four or five of these being
ANNUAL CHARGES. 2IQ
ploughed between each two rows of trees. The
water is applied very slowly, several days being
spent in watering 5 acres, and when dry the ground
is thoroughly cultivated.
The annual charges for water by the acre in
Southern California, where this economy of water
is practised, have been as low as $3, and from this
rising to $6 or more per acre. In the case of
the San Diego Flume Company it is stated that
water was sold for $600 per miner's inch, with an
annual charge or rental of $60, i miner's inch be-
ing considered sufficient for from 10 to 20 acres.
The annual charge for water taking the arid region
as a whole has averaged by states from 50 cents
to $2.00 per acre, or $1.25 per acre for the entire
country.
The conditions in Southern California, while they
may be considered as exceptional, yet indicate the
limiting or ideal conditions of economical use of
water. For good farming in other parts of the
arid region, 12 inches of water in depth during
the crop season should be sufficient, except in the
case of alfalfa and other forms of forage which are
cut a number of times, when at least from 4 to 6
inches should usually be given to a cutting. As
previously stated, the character of the soil, the
temperature, and the wind movement introduce so
many conditions that broad statements of this kind
are merely suggestive, and not to be followed as
rules.
220 IRRIGATION.
Irrigation is usually carried on during the day-
time, and it is unusual for water to be applied dur-
ing the night, other than to arrange the head
gates and allow the water to flow to certain por-
tions of the field. In times of scarcity, however,
when water can be had only at certain hours, night
irrigation must be carried on, and the water care-
fully applied, with as much skill as possible in the
darkness. Night irrigation, although possessing
disadvantages, has many advocates. The air being
cooler, excessive evaporation is checked, there is
less loss and consequently more economy in use,
and the plants are not so suddenly chilled as during
the heat of the day when cold water is run upon
the fields ; and the proportional amount of water
received during the night is often greater than
during the daytime, and the charge or cost is
correspondingly less ; so that, for economy in vari-
ous directions, night irrigation is sometimes pre-
ferred.
ARRANGEMENT OF IRRIGATED FARM.
The accompanying drawing (Fig. 71) gives the
general arrangement of a farm under irrigation.
The main ditch is shown in the upper right-hand
corner, this being the highest portion of the land.
In this angle is the garden, the root crops being
shown as cultivated in furrows. Near this is the
orchard, so laid out that the water flows along the
trees set on contours, this portion of the land being
FIG. 71. — Plan of an irrigated farm.
222 IRRIGATION.
on a slight side-hill. Farther down another part
of the orchard is more nearly level, and the trees
are arranged in straight lines. Adjacent to the
orchard is a crop of corn, which is irrigated in
rows.
Running irregularly through the farm below the
orchard is a distributing lateral connected with the
main ditch, but receiving also any excess water
from the higher land. From this distributing lat-
eral water is taken out at short intervals into the
alfalfa and wheat, both of which are irrigated by
flooding. Below this land in turn is shown another
lateral in the lower left-hand corner of the drawing,
this receiving any excess water and carrying it to
other fields.
As a result of continued irrigation, the ground
water in the vicinity of the farm is gradually
raised, and soon after irrigation has been intro-
duced the amount needed annually decreases
rapidly by reason of the gradual saturation of the
subsoil. This is shown diagrammatically in the
accompanying figure, which gives a plan of another
farm and a section showing the condition of the
ground. In the plan, Fig. 72, is shown a main
canal flowing diagonally across from left to right.
Lateral ditches are taken out of the main ditch and
carried along two sides of the farm, this being
possible because of the slope, indicated by the con-
tours. From these lateral ditches on the two sides,
distributing ditches flow inward toward the main
s
.' '-Ground Water '• October to December
Ground Water hvfnve Irt-inntinn Commenced(1870)
FlG. 72. — Rise of ground water following irrigation.
224 IRRIGATION.
canal, following in a general way along the contours.
One of these ditches forks to embrace a depression,
so that water can be carried toward this from both
sides. Consequent upon irrigation being carried
on continuously, the ground water, which previ-
ously was from 15 to 18 feet beneath the surface,
has been raised to within 6 or 8 feet of the surface,
as shown by wells. During the irrigating season
the water is brought still nearer the surface, as
indicated in Fig. 72.
In a case of excessive use of water and see-
page from higher lands, this gradual rise may be-
come destructive by waterlogging soil or forming
marshes. The most serious dangers from this
cause are the liability of producing disease in
plant roots if permanently submerged, and of
bringing alkaline salts to the surface. This matter
is further discussed on pages 76 and 281.
CHAPTER VII.
UNDERGROUND WATERS.
IN the preceding pages consideration has been
given mainly to the water which flows on ' the sur-
face of the earth, in the form of creeks or rivers,
or stands without apparent motion in ponds. It
is important, however, not to neglect the waters
which, although out of sight, are circulating be-
neath the surface, and which, in the aggregate,
play an important part in the reclamation of arid
land as well as in various industries. In the humid
region the ground is usually saturated with water
nearly to the roots of the trees. In the arid region,
however, the plane of saturation, or water table,
as it is termed, may be at great depth. Water
applied to the surface tends to sink to the lowest
possible level, but may be prevented from so
doing by an impervious layer. Beneath the irri-
gated fields there sometimes exists a thickness of
several hundred feet of dry rocks, but, as a rule,
these are in time filled with water, and an under-
ground circulation is set up comparable to that
existing in humid countries.
Q 225
226 IRRIGATION.
RETURN WATERS.
In the process of irrigation, a portion of the
water applied to the fields evaporates. Another
portion is taken up by the plants and escapes to
the air through the leaves ; this is the part that
has done the work for which water was obtained
and applied. Another portion sinks into the
ground and gradually passes out of the reach of
the plants by percolating downward or outward
from the fields ; this portion is practically lost to
the irrigator, and represents a certain amount of
wasted material. It is sometimes impracticable
to guard against this waste ; but, as a rule, it may
be said that water escaping over or beneath the
surface indicates poor management.
The water percolating beneath the surface is
not only itself, for the time being, lost, but it is
likely to carry with it in solution valuable earthy
salts or plant food, washing out and reducing the
richness of the soil. Sometimes this washing is
of value, as when the soil contains an excess of
soluble alkali, and it is desired to get rid of the
injurious superabundance.
This underground water gradually travels by
percolation or seepage along the path of least
resistance, filling up the voids and gradually
accumulating until it has raised the level of the
water plane to the point of overflow. It seeks the
lowest points, these being usually along the drain-
RETURN WATERS. 22/
age lines of the valley. Here the water again
comes to the surface, after a lapse of weeks or
months, forming wet places or springs, and aug-
menting the flow of a stream. Thus it happens
that some of the water taken out in a canal during
the time of spring floods from a point higher up
on a river may reappear in late summer at a lower
point along the river, after having travelled under-
ground a distance of several miles. This seepage
or return water, if not heavily charged with alkali,
may have especial value, as discussed on page 76.
At this late season of the year the streams are
naturally at their lowest point and water is in
greatest demand.
The accompanying diagram (Fig. 73) shows the
conditions which were found during a season in
Ogden Valley, Utah. The space from left to
right represents the time from July 5 to August
30, 1894. The distance vertically indicates the
quantity of water. The dotted lines show the
amount of water used in irrigation; this gradually
diminishes from about 150 second-feet on the 5th
of July to 44 second-feet at the end of August.
The inflow coming into the head of the valley is
shown by the light line, being about 165 second-
feet on July 5, and decreasing to a little less than
75 second-feet. The amount used for irrigation
deducted from the inflow should apparently give
the outflow from the valley. On the contrary,
however, the latter, as shown by the heavy Ijne,
228
IRRIGATION.
was, almost without exception, greater than the
amount coming into the valley, notwithstanding
that most of the inflow was diverted upon the
fields.
JULY.
AUGUST.
5 10 15 20 25
5 10 15 20 25
H en vi N ut vi
01 0 en • 0 tn Ota
x
Outt
7Zf/B
FlG. 73. — Diagram illustrating inflow and outflow of Ogden Valley,
Utah.
From the inspection of this diagram it is appar-
ent that the outflow of the valley was increased by
the seepage or water applied to the fields during
earlier months. As the inflow and the amount of
water used in irrigation diminished, the outflow
steadily increased.
Because of this large amount of return or see-
page water, there may exist the anomalous condi-
UNDERFLOW. 229
tion of a tight dam across a river, taking out all
of the stream, and a few miles below the dam
pools of water beginning to occur, while farther
down these pools overflow and imperceptibly a
stream of considerable size appears in the channel,
this again being taken out by another tight dam,
and so on for a number of times in succession.
The amount of land irrigable along an extensive
river system is thus slowly increased, since the
water used in early spring in higher valleys may
gradually reappear below and furnish water for
fields which otherwise would be dry. Thus when
the limit of irrigation has apparently been reached,
there is found to be still a little more water, the
irrigable area widening slowly with the gradual
development of irrigation and larger use of water
higher on the stream. This irregularity of the
rivers, increasing without visible cause, has been
noted on page 73.
UNDERFLOW.
Water beneath the surface, generally recognized
as occurring in all regions of abundant rainfall,
has attracted especial attention when found in arid
or semiarid regions, because of the striking con-
trast with surface conditions. In view of the dry-
ness of the climate and the apparently impervious
condition of the sod cover, it did not seem possible,
when first noted, that this water could come from
local rainfall. For several years preceding and
230 IRRIGATION.
succeeding 1890 attention was drawn to the fact
that upon portions of the Great Plains, where the
climate is very dry, there are beneath the surface
considerable bodies of water-bearing sands and
gravels. These are mainly in the broad valleys
occupied by intermittent streams. The mistaken
assumption was made that this water must have
come from the Rocky Mountain region, and is
travelling in a broad sheet with continuous flow
toward the southeast. The average fall of the
plains is not far from 7 feet to the mile, and it was
asserted that in consequence of this slope the water
was steadily moving as a vast underground river
from the mountains toward the Mississippi.
Assuming that an underflow of this character
existed, it was argued that if a channel were cut
into the ground, following up a valley having a
slope of 7 feet to the mile, but with a rise of only
i foot in a mile, at the end of the first mile the
ditch would be 6 feet below the surface, and in 10
miles it would be 60 feet beneath the surface. On
this slope the water would readily run out of the
drain, and thus the underflow would be intercepted
and brought to the surface. Many thousand
dollars were spent in attempting to construct such
uncterflow ditches, but none of these have been
successful.
Nature has already trenched the plains with
drainage lines of this character, but none of them
deliver any considerable amount of water. It is
GREAT PLAINS UNDERFLOW. 231
true that there are occasional springs in the sides
or bottoms of these gullies or coulees, but the resist-
ance to the flow underground is so great that the
water does not percolate freely toward outlets of
this character. The plane of saturation, or water
table, follows to a certain extent the undulations of
the ground, and is not maintained horizontal, as
would be the case if the water stood in an open
lake or pond.
To illustrate this point we may assume that a
pond is filled with gravel and sand. The surface
of the water at first is perfectly horizontal from
one side to the other. Before the gravel is placed
in the pond the water can be drawn down and will
maintain this level surface, except for an infinitely
small slope dependent upon the rapidity with which
the water is drawn out. After the gravel is thrown
in and the outlet is opened, water will rush out,
but, owing to the restricting influence of friction,
the surface of the water within the gravel will no
longer be level, but will assume a decided slope
toward the outlet. In course of time this slope
will decrease and tend to approach the horizontal,
but if a small amount of water is added gradually
at the upper edge and an equal amount is running
out at the lower point, there will be permanently
maintained a sloping water surface within the
gravel.
The so-called underflow of the plains consists of
the small amount of water which enters'the ground
232 IRRIGATION.
from occasional local rains and which progresses
toward lower points at the rate of a few feet a
month. Some of this water gradually escapes into
the natural ravines, or occasionally bursts forth as a
spring ; but the plane of saturation of the pervious
rocks is not horizontal ; it follows often the slopes of
the surface of the ground, and sometimes is inclined
at a high angle. The digging of a trench into this
saturated layer introduces a change in the slope of
the water surface, making it dip toward the new
outlet. The total amount obtained as a continuous
flow rarely repays the cost of the work.
There are, however, localities where underflow
works are successful, and it is because of the
excellent results attained here that men have
argued that such undertakings can profitably be
entered upon elsewhere. But the conditions which
make it possible to obtain water from under ground
are radically different from those existing upon the
Great Plains. There the gravel beds or other
pervious strata are widespread, and are not usually
bounded by well-defined walls. When, however,
gravels and boulders are found filling the bottoms
of canyons, as in Fig. 74, it is possible that water
may be moving through these with a definite
course and velocity.
Such conditions are found throughout the moun-
tainous portion of the arid regions. The streams
which flow through canyons or narrow gorges have,
as a rule, filled up their beds. In ancient times the
CANYON UNDERFLOW. 233
streams cut their way downward into the solid
rock to a depth considerably below the present
stream channels. In modern geologic times these
ancient channels have become filled to a depth of
10 feet, 20 feet, or even 100 feet or more. The
material usually consists of large boulders, with
occasional beds of gravel, sand, or even clay, left
in protected nooks.
If this mass of material partly filling the can-
yons is dry, and a heavy rain occurs above, the
water from the storm will flow down, saturating
the surface, and gradually penetrating the lower
layers until the spaces between the pebbles are
filled. If the stream continues to flow for several
hours, a considerable part of its volume may be
taken in by the gravel, and the water may entirely
disappear in the course of a mile or two, leaving
the surface dry. A creek cannot continue to flow
undiminished over a boulder bed until the latter is
completely saturated with water. A little considera-
tion shows that if water is withdrawn from the per-
vious material beneath the surface of a stream, it
must be replenished, and that the surface discharge
is reduced by the same amount.
The water saturating the gravels tends to move
downward and forward under the influence of
gravity, but its rate of flow, being diminished by
friction and by adhesion to the surfaces of the
grains, is far less than that of the water on the
surface. While the latter may be travelling two
234
IRRIGATION.
or three miles in an hour, the moisture under-
ground, even in coarse gravels, probably does not
pass over this distance in a week or a month. The
rate of flow has not been determined, but a few
experiments, made in different parts of the coun-
try, show that this rate is, under ordinary circum-
stances, extremely slow.
FlG. 74. — Dam across a rocky canyon, cutting off the underflow.
The accompanying illustration (Fig. 74) is in-
tended to show how the underflow in narrow can-
yons has been utilized. An impervious dam, the
top of which is shown in the figure as being above
the surface, is built to bed rock, and the joints at
the bottom and sides are made water-tight. Thus
all of the water percolating down the gravel and
boulder-filled channel, meeting this obstruction, is
UNDERFLOW DAM. 235
retained, and, accumulating, may appear upon the
surface. A pipe through this dam will draw off
the water, but to receive the largest supply it
must be placed near the bottom of the dam and
not near the surface, as shown in the drawing.
By means of such a submerged dam, small quanti-
ties of water are obtained. Where the channel is,
however, of indefinite width, such dams are not
practicable, since the percolating water will usually
find its way around them.
The underflow in narrow or restricted channels,
such as have been described above, has great im-
portance in the development of irrigation and as a
source of municipal supply. Many controversies
have arisen concerning the relation which this
bears to the surface stream. Some persons have
contended that the taking of water by means of
tunnels or other works built far beneath the sur-
face does not perceptibly diminish the visible flow,
claiming that the two streams are entirely distinct,
being separated by impervious layers, or by a
retardation of flow which behaves as an imper-
vious layer.
One of the most interesting cases recently- de-
cided, bearing upon the character and ownership
of the underflow, is that of the Los Angeles River
of Southern California. The stream to which this
name is applied appears upon the surface near the
lower end of San Fernando Valley. The visible
water gradually increases in volume as the valley
236 IRRIGATION.
narrows, and in the gorge or canyon by which the
stream makes its exit toward the ocean it attains
a considerable and fairly constant volume. The
river, as shown on PL XXXVII, A, appears to
come from marshy ground, and might be said to
have its origin here, but this water must have
come primarily from the rainfall ; and since the
valley is relatively small, the amount which falls
upon it would not be sufficient to maintain the
river.
Throughout San Fernando Valley are many
wells, some of them in gravel capable of yielding
large quantities of water. Among the most im-
portant of these works for obtaining underground
water are those of a company which purchased a
large tract, tunnelled beneath the surface, and con-
structed infiltration galleries from which large and
valuable amounts of water were obtained. The
city of Los Angeles, owning the water in the
river, claimed that this large development work,
while a mile or more from the visible stream, was
in effect taking water out of the river, and brought
suit to restrain this unlawful diversion.
The water company claimed that under the com-
mon law they had an unquestionable right to take
all of the water found beneath the surface of
the land which they owned, since this water flows
or percolates underground in undefined channels.
It was, therefore, incumbent upon the city to
demonstrate that the water in San Fernando Val-
IRRIGATION
PLATE XXXVII.
A. WEIR MEASUREMENTS OF LOS ANGELES RIVER IN SAN
FERNANDO VALLEY. CALIFORNIA.
r
B. RESULTS OF IRRIGATION FROM RIVERS OF SOUTHERN
CALIFORNIA.
LOS ANGELES RIVER. 237
ley does move beneath the surface in denned chan-
nels, and that these feed the Los Angeles River as
would be done by ordinary surface streams.
To make the situation clear, it will be necessary
to explain the conditions a little more at length.
To the north and east of San Fernando Valley is a
large tributary watershed, coming from which are
several streams, the most important of these being
Big and Little Tejunga and Pacoima creeks. The
mountains at the head waters of these streams are
high and receive a considerable rainfall. A por-
tion of this flows in the streams and continues
downward to the edge of the San Fernando Val-
ley, where it gradually disappears in the gravel
and boulder channels or washes which extend out
across the valley toward the points where Los
Angeles River rises. These washes are usually
dry on the surface, except in the rainy season, and
thus the creeks named are not visibly connected
with Los Angeles River.
It is claimed on behalf of the city of Los
Angeles that the water progresses gradually be-
neath the surface along these washes, finally
reappearing in the river to maintain the continu-
ous discharge. The rival company's works were
placed within these washes, and the assertion was
made that, even though the water percolating
through these gravels might ultimately reach the
i iver, yet, since this did not flow in known and well-
defined channels, there was no cause for action.
238 IRRIGATION.
The court decided that the water travelling be-
neath the surface was a part of the Los Angeles
River, and that these washes, well marked on the
surface of the ground, indicated the presence of
well-defined channels beneath the surface, these
indications being confirmed by testimony based
upon the depth of the water in wells and test
pits. This was further supported by the analogy in
the case of a pond filled with boulders. The San
Fernando Valley might be regarded as a natural
basin into which streams flowed from the hills, and
out of which water was discharged at the lower
end. The gradual filling of this pond with debris
from the mountains would not completely displace
the water, but it would continue to travel beneath
the surface toward points of least resistance.
If the water at the outlet is all owned or appro-
priated, it would not be proper to permit diversions
from the pond, even though this were filled with
gravel in such a way as to obscure and break up
the course of flow. It was held that " It makes no
difference whether the onward flow is upon or
below the surface, provided it is in a known and
defined direction and in known and defined chan-
nels. The washes of the Tejungas and of the
Pacoima are clearly cut and well defined from
these streams, to the Los Angeles River. In sea-
sons of heavy rainfall these streams sometimes cut
new surface channels through the sand, but for a
long time they have maintained such channels
LOS ANGELES RIVER. 239
through substantially the same territory." " It
is this subsurface flow that supports and sustains
the flow of the Los Angeles River, and any
diversion from it ... amounts eventually to an
equivalent abstraction of the same quantity directly
from the river."
The fact that the testimony presented in this
case has established the existence of well-defined
channels underground should not be taken as
implying that similar channels can be found
wherever water occurs in considerable quantities
beneath the surface. The topographic and geo-
logic conditions must be thoroughly studied in
order to discriminate between conditions where
such channels do exist and those where the water
is merely seeping or progressing slowly from point
to point in broad, irregular deposits of gravel. In
the latter it is usually impossible to demonstrate
that there are any well-defined limits, since the
gravels shade off into sands or clay, each mass
of pervious material being perhaps isolated from
all others, or connected by overlapping layers.
The effect of a well, or collecting gallery, in such
a broad mass of gravel is not like that of similar
works in a narrow channel with definite walls as
shown in Fig. 74, since in the latter case all of the
water travelling through the narrow channel may
be within the sphere of influence of the well or
tunnel, and may be abstracted. On the other
hand, in the broad deposit the well may receive
240 IRRIGATION.
water only from the immediate vicinity, the plane
of saturation being depressed around the well,
forming a conical slope toward the point from
which water is pumped. Only the water within
a relatively small distance from the well is thus
reached, and the great body of water percolating
through the broad gravelly layer is not affected.
To sum up and make more clear the difference
which exists in behavior between different classes
of underflow, it is desirable to present a mental
picture of three conditions : First, an open body of
water, such as a small pond. Water pumped any-
where from this immediately lowers the whole sur-
face. The pond can be filled with large boulders
and the same effect takes place. In the second
condition the spaces between the boulders are
filled with fine sand. Now water pumped from
one side of the pond does not immediately lower
the surface, and, if the material is sufficiently fine,
a well sunk in it may be pumped almost dry with-
out lowering the water around the edges of the
pond, the slope of saturation extending from the
bottom of the well steeply upward in all directions.
There is a slow movement from all parts of the
pond toward the well, but this may be so slow that
very little water can be had. This is the case of
percolation. The third condition obtains when
fine sand fills the interstices of the boulders in the
pond except along a narrow path or channel lead-
ing across the pond to the well. When the pump
ORDINARY WELLS. 241
is used the water will flow with considerable
rapidity along this narrow boulder-filled path free
from sand. This is, in effect, an underground
stream with a definite channel which can be ascer-
tained by test pits or boring. In this channel the
behavior of the water is decidedly different from
that of the other water which is slowly seeping in
the surrounding, less pervious mass.
Like most other natural phenomena, the condi-
tions which distinguish movement of water by
seepage and by actual flow underground merge
into each other, so that, while it is possible to say
that here is an underground flow and there is
merely an undefined seepage, yet the determina-
tion of the boundary line between the two is a
matter of judgment. As yet no rule has been laid
down, but the experiments and the decision of the
court in the Los Angeles case have gone a long
way toward clearing up this complicated subject.
ORDINARY WELLS.
Almost everywhere, even in the arid region,
water can be had by digging wells at points near
stream channels or along the foothills. Out in the
broad valleys it may be necessary to go to a depth
of from 100 to 300 feet or more before reaching
moisture. Dug wells are the most common means
of obtaining small amounts of water. Where the
supply is ample, various devices for bringing the
water to the surface have been employed, particu-
242 IRRIGATION.
larly windmills, as described on page 265. The
quantity of water is dependent upon certain geo-
logic conditions, the sands and gravel usually be-
ing saturated and delivering water freely to any
cavity in them.
In digging a well it is the custom to make the
hole only large enough to permit one man to work
in it. The soil penetrated must usually be held
in place, masonry or brickwork being generally
employed for this purpose, and occasionally wood.
The latter, however, is liable to decay rapidly,
impregnating the water and allowing the ground
to cave in and fill the well. The hole is continued
downward until water is struck, and then fre-
quently the work ceases because of the difficulty of
digging further.
To obtain a sufficient supply for irrigation, it is
very important not to stop digging the well when
the top of the water-bearing sands or gravel is
reached, but to continue down into these. Some-
times this can be done by driving perforated pipe
in the bottom of the well, thus penetrating layers
of still coarser material and adding greatly to the
capacity of the well. Sometimes these lower
water horizons are under greater pressure than the
gravels first struck, and water may rise through
the pipe in the well up to and above the level of
the bottom.
It is very important to provide a free passage
for the water from the material in which it occurs.
WELL DIGGING. 243
This is sometimes done by driving galleries or
tunnels from the bottom of the well out beneath
the surface far enough to intersect coarser de-
posits, such as may have been laid down in ancient
stream channels. These collecting galleries serve
to bring small quantities of water toward a centre,
where they can be had by pumping.
Work of this character is hardly practicable for
ordinary farm or domestic supply, but has been
successfully undertaken by towns and small cities
in the West. With the development of population
and the increase of the value of water, it is proba-
ble that investments of this character may be
profitable for some forms of irrigation.
Water obtained mainly for irrigation is occa-
sionally employed for other purposes, especially
for household uses and for domestic animals. It
is thus often important to protect it from pollution,
particularly when obtained from shallow wells. It
has long been recognized that the prevalence of
typhoid and similar diseases in the country can
often be traced to well waters contaminated by
waste material from houses or stables. The same
pervious layers of sand and gravel which drink in
the rain water and deliver it to the well, also
eagerly receive the drainage from outhouses and
stables, and convey this also to the lowest point,
where it may be pumped. It is, therefore, of the
greatest importance to guard the purity of the
water supply, first by locating wells at a suitable
244
IRRIGATION.
distance from possible points of pollution, and
next by constructing suitable lining or curbing to
prevent surface drainage from being washed in.
An efficient form of well curbing, shutting out sur-
face drainage, is
shown in Fig. 75.
Impure water
has been known
to penetrate
through gravel
to a distance of
several hundred
feet. In this
course some of
the injurious or-
ganic matter may
be destroyed or
__ consumed, but it
is not safe to de-
pend upon this
action to any
considerable ex-
FlG. 75. —Ordinary well curbing and windlass. teilt* Simple
test can often
be applied by putting brine or crude petroleum at
a point where waste material is deposited, and
noting whether this affects the water in the well.
For example, at a country home where typhoid
fever occurred, it was believed that the well water
was wholly undefiled ; but on pouring a barrel of
WELL CASING.
245
crude oil into a cesspool 200 feet or more away
from the well, within twenty-four hours the water
in the well had become so impregnated with the
oil that it could not be used. The water from the
cesspool had undoubtedly been filtered in its long
passage through sand and gravel, but had probably
brought with it some harmful organic life.
When water is obtained from deeply buried
gravels, the casing or lining of the well should be
made perfectly water-tight from the top of the
UNCOHSOUDATED OP
SURfACC MATER/AL
FIG. 76. — Diagram illustrating evils of insuffi-
cient casing.
water-bearing beds to a point slightly above the
surface of the ground, in order to prevent contami-
nation. In Fig. 76 is shown a somewhat com-
mon mistake in well-making. The owner first dug
a well and secured a small supply of surface water.
This not being sufficient, he put down a tube or
246 IRRIGATION.
casing to an impervious bed, and in this drilled a
hole until he reached a porous, water-bearing hori-
zon. The water, being held down by the imper-
vious cover, rose in the opening made, and filled
the bottom of the well. In dry times a large part
of the supply went to saturate the unconsolidated
surface material in which the old well was due:,
o *
and in wet seasons the percolating rain water and
surface washing mingled with the purer deep
waters. For economy of water and for preserv-
ing the supply undefiled, the casing should have
continued, as above stated, from the water-bearing
bed to the surface.
ARTESIAN WELLS.
A great part of the water which occurs under-
ground is found to be percolating slowly through
the rocks and soils. When these are penetrated
by a well, the water collects in this and assumes a
level which represents the plane of saturation of
the ground. Occasionally it happens that the per-
vious material, as sand or gravel, is overlain by an
impervious bed, as shown in Fig. 76, and in a
well dug through the latter into the gravel the
water will rise to a height equal to the line of satu-
ration in the surrounding country.
If the beds of alternating clay and gravel are
inclined, or tilted by earth movement, water will fol-
low down under the clay or impervious shale, gradu-
ally acquiring greater and greater pressure. The
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXXVIII.
A. ARTESIAN WELL IN ARIZONA.
B. ARTESIAN WELL IN KANSAS.
ARTESIAN WELLS.
247
impervious roof holds the water down until pierced
by a well. The term " artesian " is applied to wells
in which the water actually overflows the surface
of the ground, as shown on PL XXXVIII. There
is no commonly accepted designation to cover the
case of wells in which the water rises but does not
overflow, this being characteristic to a greater or*
less extent of nearly all artificial openings in the
ground. The term " negative " artesian wells has
sometimes been applied in this connection, but in
its original sense it was used to cover the condi-
tion where water is held up by an impervious layer,
and when the latter is penetrated the water flows
downward to a lower level of permeable rock.
Several swampy areas in southern Georgia have
thus been drained by boring deep holes in the
lower portions. The surface water has escaped
down these holes to unknown depths.
The accompanying figure (77) illustrates one of
the conditions of artesian structure. One side of a
basin is represented, the porous beds of sand or
B . A t_ C
FlG. 77. — Section of one side of an artesian basin.
clay marked A outcropping as a rolling upland;
below and above this are impervious beds marked
B and C.
The next figure illustrates the conditions where
the coarse material A has not been curved in a
248 IRRIGATION.
basin, but is sloping in one direction, such as might
occur where sand and gravel have been deposited on
a sloping sea-coast and after subsidence have been
covered with clay. The pervious bed A receives
water from rainfall on its exposed edges. It slopes
FIG. 78. — Section illustrating the thinning out of a porous water-
bearing bed, A, enclosed between impervious beds, Z?and C, thus furnish-
ing the necessary conditions for an artesian well, D.
gently inward and, lying on the impervious layer
B, is covered by the clay or shale C. A well at D
penetrating these will overflow, and if the pipe
were continued upward would rise to the level of
the line CF, this being the plane of saturation of
the area which receives the water from rainfall.
Artesian conditions occur in nearly every state,
but they do not extend over any considerable por-
tion of the country, except on the Great Plains and
in the valley of California. Wherever they do
occur the water has considerable value on account
of the convenience incident to its rising above the
surface. In some places, as in the James River
Valley of South Dakota, the pressure is 100 pounds
or more to the square inch, throwing the water to
considerable heights and enabling the wells to be
used as sources of power. For this purpose a
small stream is directed against an impulse wheel,
or connection is made with a reciprocating water
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XXXIX.
OUTFIT FOR DRILLING DEEP ARTESIAN WELLS.
POWER FROM ARTESIAN FLOW. 249
engine, as at Aberdeen, South Dakota, where the
sewage of the city is pumped automatically by
machinery of this character. The city supply is
obtained from two or three deep wells, the pressure
being sufficient to throw streams through fire hose
over the highest buildings, and, as just noted, the
surplus water is disposed of by the force from still
another well directed into suitable engines.
PL XXXIX shows the derrick and the most
conspicuous portion of the machinery for drilling
a deep or artesian well. The . skeleton tower or
derrick is 72 feet high, being sufficiently tall to
support, from a pulley at the top, the long slender
steel drilling tools which are suspended from a
stout cable. With the arrangement shown, wells
1000 to 3000 feet in depth are drilled.
Occasionally the water from these deep wells is
saline or brackish, and thus has little value, unless
the brine is so strong as to be useful in the manu-
facture of salt. Water slightly saline to the taste
can be used in irrigation if care is taken in cultiva-
tion to prevent the accumulation of earthy salts.
By the thorough study of the geologic structure
and of the condition of the rocks as regards per-
meability and slope, it is possible to prepare maps
showing the underground condition with reference
to flowing wells, and to outline the areas where
water will rise to or above the surface, and also to
indicate the depth of the water-bearing rocks.
Such maps have been prepared for a small portion
250 IRRIGATION.
of the country. By means of them the farmer or
citizen can ascertain whether it is probable that
water can be had, the depth, and the character of
the rocks to be penetrated, thus making it possible
for him to estimate the expense of obtaining water
in this way.
The amount of water to be had from deep wells
is governed largely by the diameter of the well,
FIG. 79. — Geologic section from the Black Hills east across South
Dakota (western half).
but more by the structure and thickness of the
water-bearing rocks and the head or pressure under
which the water occurs. From relatively dense
rocks a slight head or pressure of water will force
only a feeble stream, but from thick layers of open
gravel or sand-rock large volumes are delivered,
the quantity being limited by the size of the pipe
of the well. This is usually from 2 to nearly 6
inches in diameter, the ordinary wells averaging
GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE. 251
about 4 inches. It is not to be supposed, however,
that by increasing the diameter a correspondingly
large amount of water will be obtained. It fre-
quently occurs that a 4-inch pipe will deliver all
of the water that can reach this point, and enlarg-
ing the diameter of the well to 4 feet will not
increase the flow.
The source of the water coming to artesian wells
may be at a distance of several miles or several hun-
dred miles. The large amount obtainable in eastern
South Dakota probably has travelled underground
from the eastern front of the Rocky Mountains or
from the Black Hills, distances of from 200 to 400
DAKOTA SANOSTOM£
Fie,. 80. — Geologic section from the Black Hills east across South
Dakota (eastern half).
miles. Figures 79 and 80 give a geologic section
from the Black Hills east across South Dakota,
showing the relations of the water-bearing Dakota
sandstone to the overlying impervious shales and to
the artesian wells in eastern South Dakota receiv-
ing their supply from the sandstone. A view of
one of these wells is shown in PL XL. This is
at Woonsocket, South Dakota, a 3-inch stream
being thrown to a height of 97 feet.
252 IRRIGATION.
The area of rock thus saturated may aggregate
many hundred square miles, and the volume stored
underground is thus very large. On the other
hand, an artesian basin may be small, the rocks
outcropping in the near vicinity of the well and
receiving only a small supply from the annual rain-
fall. One or two wells drilled into a small basin
do not perceptibly diminish the pressure or the
flow ; but as the number is increased the stored
water is drawn upon more rapidly than it can be
replenished, and the pressure greatly diminishes,
until the wells no longer flow unless some of them
are stopped. A condition of this kind has occurred
in the artesian basin in the vicinity of Denver,
Colorado. All of the wells within or near the city
have ceased flowing, and water is obtained from
them by pumping. Out in the country, in a more
remote portion of the basin, some of the wells still
flow. This general diminution of pressure has not
been noticed in the larger artesian basins, such as
those in the San Joaquin Valley of California, the
Moxee Valley of Washington, the James River
Valley of South Dakota, and the San Luis Valley
of Colorado.
Some artesian wells have decreased or stopped
flowing, not from lack of water, but because of
mechanical defects in their construction. Fine
sand has accumulated, stopping up the well, or
the tubing or casing has rusted away, permitting
the water to escape into pervious rocks below
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XL.
WELL AT WOONSOCKET, SOUTH DAKOTA, THROWING A 3-INCH
STREAM TO A HEIGHT OF 97 FEET
INJURY TO ARTESIAN WELLS. 253
ground. In some localities where wells were
abandoned because the water did not rise to the
surface or the flow was unsatisfactory the casings
of the wells have been drawn for use elsewhere.
The water has continued to rise from the bottom
of the well and to escape into the higher porous
strata, permitting a continual outflow from the
artesian water-bearing rocks. Several artesian
basins have been greatly weakened or even
destroyed by such treatment. In the construc-
tion of artesian wells it is highly important to
provide suitable casing to prevent the wells leaking
into the dry rocks, and, in short, every precaution
should be taken to prevent waste of water or
destruction of other wells through careless man-
agement of one or two.
The amount of water delivered by an artesian
well varies from a few gallons a minute to as high
as 5 cubic feet per second or even more. Wells
flowing i cubic foot per second have great value
in irrigation, as by storing this water 100 or 160
acres can be watered. The advantages of water
obtained in this way are very great, as the owner
of the well is independent and can use his water
when and where he wishes, while the irrigator de-
pending upon a ditch system cannot. Artesian
well water is also free from seeds of weeds and is
usually somewhat warmer than the ground ; thus
it does not chill the plants, as is sometimes the
case with water from mountain streams.
CHAPTER VIII.
PUMPING WATER.
IT has previously been stated that the greater
portion of water used in irrigation is diverted by
gravity from flowing streams. While this is true
as regards bulk of water, as regards value it may
be said that some of the most important sources
of supply are utilized through pumping. In an-
cient times, especially in Egypt and India, where
labor had little value and the conditions for divert-
FlG. 81. — The doon, or tilting trough.
ing water by gravity were not favorable, pumping
by hand or by animal power was largely practised.
254
HAND PUMPING.
255
The accompanying illustration shows a crude de-
vice, a tilting trough known as a doon. This is
pivoted near its centre, and is counterbalanced by
rock in such way that one end of the doon can
be pressed into the water, the weight of the rock
then lifting this end, elevating it sufficiently to
throw the water into a ditch.
PUMPING BY HAND OR ANIMAL POWER.
Another view (Fig. 82) is of a series of well-
sweeps, or shadoofs, as still used in Egypt, this
FIG. 82. — Series of shadoofs as used in Egypt.
device being also employed in modified forms in
many countries. By means of it water is raised
IRRIGATION.
from 5 to 10 feet or more. As shown in the view,
a series of shadoofs are arranged, to avoid greater
lifts, the water being raised first to one level and
then to the next, and so on until the top of the
bank is reached. With these well-sweeps the
workman uses his weight to depress the bucket
into the water, whence it is lifted largely by the
counterweight, the bucket being swung over and
emptied when it reaches the proper level.
PL KNOT WELL
FIG. 83. — A mot, operated by oxen.
Animal power is used in many forms, either in
directly pulling up a bucket or skin full of water,
as shown in Fig. 83, or in operating some form of
pump. The device shown is known as a mot, and
consists of a rope passing over a pulley and down
into a well, to the lower end there being attached
a receptacle for the water. The animals, walking
away from the well, usually down an incline, draw
PUMPING BY ANIMALS. 257
the bucket to the top, where it is emptied. The
animals then walk backward to the well and repeat
the operation.
In modern times these devices have been im-
proved upon, although some of them are still
utilized in crude form by pioneers in the arid
region. The well-sweep has in general been re-
placed by the windlass, which raises water in a
FlG. 84. — Horse-power for lifting water.
bucket, as shown in Fig. 75. With ordinary farm
wells of this kind irrigation is impracticable, other
than the watering of a few trees or plats of vege-
tables ; but the beginnings of irrigation on many a
farm in the subhumid region may be traced to
successful experiments with water raised in this
laborious manner.
258
IRRIGATION.
The next step in pumping water under pioneer
conditions has frequently been the utilization
of horse-power. The accompanying figure (84)
shows a simple device, by which a horse walk-
ing in a circle causes a series of buckets to be
lifted from the well, drawing up water sufficient
'for several acres. The possibility of irrigation in
this way is limited largely by the depth to water
and the number of animals available.
USE OF WATER-WHEELS.
The force of flowing water has been frequently
employed to bring water up to the level of the
irrigable land. The bucket wheel has been util-
ized from the earliest historical times to the pres-
FlG. 85. — Current wheel lifting water.
WATER-WHEELS. 259
ent. This consists of a paddle-wheel with a series
of buckets arranged around the rim in such form
that when the wheel revolves by the force of the
current, the buckets are filled, raised to the top,
and emptied into a trough, which conducts the
water into the irrigating ditches. Wheels of this
kind are to be seen along most of the swift-flowing
rivers of the West, as shown in PL XLI, some of
them being as much as 30 feet in diameter.
Where there is sufficient fall in a stream to
develop water-power, this can be used by means
of various standard forms of water-wheels, such
as the turbine, these in turn operating pumping
engines. Such devices are employed occasionally
to obviate the necessity of building expensive lines
of canal, the power of a stream being used to
pump the water to the top of a high bank, which
otherwise could be surmounted only by many
miles of canal, with costly flumes and tunnels.
With small amounts of water descending pre-
cipitously and giving a head of several hundred
feet, various forms of impulse water-wheel, as
shown by Fig. 86, have been employed. This
device develops great power for a small amount
of water, and can be used to actuate various forms
of pump to bring water, either from underground or
from surface sources, up to the land which it is
desired to moisten.
The increase of irrigated areas in many parts of
the United States is being brought about by the
260 IRRIGATION.
facilities for pumping afforded by the development
of water-powers and the transmission of the energy
by electrical means. The regulation of the stream
by storage reservoirs for the purpose of supplying
water to the fields frequently creates conditions
favorable for producing power for operating water-
FlG. 86. — Impulse water-wheel.
wheels of one kind or another. These points are,
however, usually remote from centres of popula-
tion and possible markets for the power, and the
works built here would be valueless were it not for
electrical transmission. There is an awakening of
agricultural and industrial activity following each
improvement in electrical transmission.
Up to about 1890 there was a rapid decrease in
the relative importance of water-powers in the
United States ; but this has been checked by the
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XLI.
CURRENT WHEELS LIFTING WATER.
IMPULSE WATER-WHEEL. 261
practical application of methods of conveying the
power by wire, some of these being on a large
scale. In this respect the West has led in certain
features, largely because of the great expense of
fuel there and the fact that development has not
been hampered by vested rights to the use of the
rivers. Throughout the East, in New England
especially, water-powers have been utilized to a
notable extent, and the vested rights which have
resulted have served to retard changes or improve-
ments. The costly structures and machinery al-
ready erected have not been adaptable to new
requirements, and often it has been found cheaper
to abandon important powers rather than incur the
expense of extinguishing various claims and re-
modelling existing factories.
The advantages of water-power over other
sources of energy are, however, so decided that it
is apparent that, with improved methods of opera-
tion, important falls or rapids will soon be utilized.
As a rule it is cheaper than steam-power, for the
water costs nothing and the expense of mainten-
ance of hydraulic machinery and of superinten-
dence is small. The annual cost of power consists
almost entirely of interest charges on the original
investment.
In the United States there are many large rivers
and innumerable small creeks descending with
rapid fall from the mountains in regions where
fuel is expensive. There water-power must always
262 IRRIGATION.
have great importance in industrial development.
By combining the power transmitted from a num-
ber of small streams distributed over one or more
counties, it is possible to bring together at the sea-
board or at centres of population an amount of
power comparable to that had from some of the
great rivers.
In past decades water-power has been employed
only in the immediate neighborhood of a natural
fall ; and where distributed to different manufactur-
ing establishments, this has been rendered possible
by dividing the water and allowing it to flow to
the various water-wheels located in the factory
buildings. This has necessitated the crowding of
the buildings together, or a large expenditure for
conveying the water to a considerable distance.
In New England the permanent works for procur-
ing and dividing this water have been among
the most expensive in the world, and corporations
have been formed for the purpose of controlling a
large river and furnishing the water to manufac-
turing establishments, instead of generating power
and then selling it.
An example of this system of dividing water is
on the Merrimac River at Lowell and Lawrence,
Massachusetts. At the latter place the Essex
Company has built an expensive masonry dam,
giving a fall of 28 feet and obtaining 10,000 horse-
power during working hours. This dam is 900
feet long and 32 feet in height, the cost being esti-
WATER-POWER. 263
mated as $250,000. From each end of this canals
extend down-stream and mills are located along
these canals between them and the river. The
canal on the north side is a trifle over a mile in
length and 100 feet in width at the upper end, and
cost approximately the same amount as the dam.
The canal on the south side is about 2000 feet long
and 60 feet wide, and cost about $150,000. Water
is leased or sold to the mills at a certain fixed rate,
the Essex Company maintaining the dam and
canals and delivering the water at the penstocks
of the mills, from which it flows through the
wheels and is discharged back into the river. The
condition here is typical of that at many other
points in New England, and illustrates the form of
development where water is distributed to many
manufacturing establishments.
In marked contrast to the above conditions are
those growing out of the ability to divide the
power and transmit it electrically to places distant
100 miles or more. Here it is no longer necessary
to crowd the manuf acturingestablishments together,
but they may be scattered widely over the country,
at points where material and labor can be had to
best advantage. The power of the falling water
can be transformed into electrical energy in a single
establishment, from which wires radiate in all
directions ; or if the water-power is diffused in a
number of small streams, each of little importance
alone, several plants can be erected and the power
264 IRRIGATION.
concentrated by lines leading to one large factory.
This facility for transmitting power has revolution-
ized many industries, and attention is now given to
small water-powers which in times past have been
neglected or abandoned as useless.
A third step in progress is made where many
sources of power are brought together into one
system, and this branches out to localities where
power is needed. Each water-power becomes a
feeder to a main trunk line, and this line divides
to numerous establishments. Such is the condition
in Southern California, where a number of generat-
ing stations have been erected in various canyons,
and the electric wires, converging toward Los
Angeles, make possible numerous industries in
the vicinity of the city and drive many small
irrigating pumps. The arrangement is carried to
an extent such that a manufacturing establishment,
like a cement mill, may take power during the day-
time, when it is in least demand for light, and later
return an equivalent by turning in the energy
developed by its steam engines.
All of these economies resulting from the
utilization of forces otherwise lost have interest in
a consideration of the extent to which the arid
lands can be redeemed by irrigation, as they are
part of the general system of turning to beneficial
use the resources now going to waste. Cheap
power means ability to pump water, and water
supply in turn makes possible an extension of
PUMPING BY WIND POWER. 265
irrigation, and this is the principal step toward
more homes and a settled population.
WINDMILLS.
The most important and widely distributed source
of power for pumping water is wind. Over the
broad valleys and plains of the arid region the wind
blows without ceasing for days and weeks, carry-
ing away the dry leaves, and even at times sweep-
ing up the loose soil. In many localities there are,
at depths of 20 to 50 feet or more beneath the sur-
face, pervious beds of sand or gravel filled with
waters by the infiltration of rainfall or by percola-
tion from stream channels.
It is a comparatively simple and inexpensive
operation to sink a well into this water and erect
a windmill, attaching this to a suitable pump. The
machinery, once provided, is operated day and night
by the ever present wind, bringing to the surface a
small but continuous supply of water. This small
stream, if turned out on the soil, would flow a short
distance and then disappear into the thirsty ground,
so that irrigation directly from a windmill is usually
impracticable.
To overcome this difficulty it has been found
necessary to provide small storage reservoirs or
tanks, built of earth, wood, or iron, to hold the
water until it has accumulated to a volume suffi-
cient to permit a stream of considerable size being
taken out for irrigation. Such a stream flowing
266 IRRIGATION.
rapidly over the surface will extend to a distance
and cover an area which would seem impossible
with the small flow delivered by the pump.
The windmills employed in irrigation are of all
kinds, from the highest type of the machinist's
art down to the crude home-made devices. The
latter are not to be despised, as many of them are
highly effective, and at least they have enabled
settlers to procure a small amount of water and
to obtain a foothold upon the soil, by which ulti-
mately they may be able to obtain funds to pro-
cure better implements.
The accompanying PL XLII shows a number
of these home-made devices, some of them being
in the form of turbine wheels, and others, known
as the "Jumbo," consisting of horizontal paddle-
wheels so arranged that the wind sweeping over
the top of the structure strikes the exposed sails
and causes the wheel to revolve. On each end of
the axis of this wheel are attached the pump rods,
which move up and down as the wheel revolves.
Such home-made mills are, of course, of low
efficiency as regards the proportion of power
utilized. But since the force of the wind is prac-
tically limitless, the mechanical efficiency of the
device is of little consequence, provided it does
the work required. The material for these mills
costs from $5 to $20. They are easily repaired
and will serve for many years. Such machines
are, of course, not comparable, as far as workman-
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XLII.
A. JUMBO TYPE OF HOME-MADE WINDMILLS.
B. BATTLE-AXE TYPE OF HOME-MADE WINDMILLS.
HOME-MADE WINDMILLS. 267
ship is concerned, with those made by manufac-
turers of implements ; but the cheapness of the
device has enabled many a settler, discouraged in
the attempt to farm without irrigation, to obtain a
water supply and successfully raise a vegetable
garden sufficient to support his family, and also
to put up a small amount of forage for his cattle.
In building these mills pieces of old mowing
machines or reapers have been used for axles,
bearings, and connections. The sails have been
made of pieces of dry-goods boxes and old lumber
around the farm, and the whole machinery stiff-
ened and held in place by bale wire or other waste
material found in quantities around the houses of
men who have attempted to make a living upon
the plains. Thousands of settlers have pushed
westward from the humid into the subhumid por-
tions bordering the arid region, and in years of
abundant rainfall have been able to raise one or
two crops. With the changing cycles of moisture,
these regions becoming dry, the pioneers have lost
their crops year after year, and have been com-
pelled by starvation either to leave the country or
to change their methods of farming. Under these
circumstances, discouraged, without capital, some
of the more ingenious and persistent settlers have
been able to dig wells, build windmills, and irrigate
a small patch of ground, and, gradually adapting
their methods to the climate, have improved upon
their conditions and made comfortable and perma-
268 IRRIGATION.
nent homes. The crude windmill has then given
way to the shop-made mill, PI. XLIII, with its
neater appearance and greater efficiency. The
contrasting conditions have been illustrated on
Pis. I, II, and III.
The accompanying figure (87) shows two of
these mills placed on opposite sides of a small
earth reservoir, into which water is being pumped
FIG. 87. — Windmill pumping into earth reservoir.
for irrigation. Sometimes as many as half a dozen
mills are placed around a tank of this kind, a
number of small mills being found better than
one or two large ones. When the diameter of
the wheel is increased much above 10 or 12 feet,
the strength is considerably diminished and liabil-
ity to injury during storm is greatly increased.
Small, rapid-running mills, 8 to 12 feet in diameter,
have, therefore, been found most economical. If one
is injured, the others will usually continue pumping.
LIMITATIONS OF WINDMILLS. 269
The disadvantage of windmills, as a class, is that
most of them are constructed to operate only in
moderate winds. The very lightest breezes often
pass by without starting the wheel in motion. As
the strength of the wind increases, the wheel
begins to revolve, reaching greater and greater
efficiency until the velocity is about 8 or 10 miles
an hour. At greater speeds the mills are usually
so constructed that they begin to turn out of the
wind in order to protect themselves, and thus the
efficiency begins to drop off rapidly as the wind
becomes more and more powerful. When it
approaches a gale the mill stops completely, and
thus, at the time when with sufficiently strong
construction the greatest amount of water could
be pumped, the machine is standing idle.
One of the important inventions yet to be made
is a simple, strong windmill which will continue
in operation throughout a heavy wind. Many
mechanicians have tried their hand at something
of this kind, but have not yet succeeded in pro-
ducing a commercial article. The suggestion has
been made that pumping by wind may reach its
highest efficiency through the use of compressed
air, the windmill operating some form of simple
air compressor, from which a pipe will lead down
into a well, and through it water be forced out by
means of what is known as an air lift. If such a
device is practicable the windmills can be located
on the highest point of the farm, and the com-
2/0 IRRIGATION.
pressed air be carried down to the lower-lying
wells.
PUMPING BY STEAM AND GASOLENE.
Where the conditions are favorable, water is
raised for irrigation by ordinary steam pumps or
by machinery actuated by gas, gasolene, or hot-air
engines. In the vicinity of cities and towns hav-
ing waterworks, lawns and small gardens are thus
irrigated by hydrant water, the area of each being
small, but the aggregate amounting to many thou-
sand acres.
Steam pumps have been installed for irrigation
by some market gardeners and by farmers who
have engines for threshing and other farm uses.
Various forms of centrifugal pumps are generally
employed, these being connected by means of
a belt to the ordinary engines. Water is thus
raised usually not to exceed 20 feet in height.
Gasolene engines are being largely employed
where coal and wood for fuel are expensive, and
where the depth to water is not very great, say
from 15 to 30 feet. The forms of machinery are
very diverse, and there are on the market a con-
siderable number of engines, pumps, and mechan-
ical devices, many of which have been successfully
used, while others are still in experimental stages.
The cost of pumping water by engines driven
by steam, or by similar machinery, differs with the
cost of fuel, the amount of labor involved, and the
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XLIII.
WINDMILL PUMPING INTO SOD-LINED RESERVOIR.
STEAM AND GASOLINE PUMPS. 2/1
depreciation of the plant. It is, as a rule, con-
siderably higher than the amount yearly paid for
the maintenance of canals and ditches in the arid
region, or the amount paid annually to a canal
company for delivering water. It is rarely below
$2 per acre irrigated, and, from this as a minimum,
may rise to $5 or even $10 an acre. This method
of obtaining water will not be profitably employed
for general crops, except those, such as rice, where
the conditions are such that the industry is impos-
sible without resorting to this means of obtaining
water.
In humid and subhumid regions pumping plants
are at present more widely used than canals taking
water from rivers, because they can be erected by
an individual upon his own land without any com-
plications as regards riparian rights or control of
the waters. Being compact and under cover, the
machinery can be kept from deterioration and in
readiness for use in times of emergency, supple-
menting the deficient rainfall. Where windmills
have been utilized and it has been found by experi-
ence that the wind is unreliable, the irrigators fre-
quently resort to gasolene engines to keep the
pumps running during calm days.
CHAPTER IX.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION.
THE advantages of irrigation and the benefits
resulting are to be inferred from what has been
given in the preceding pages. In brief, it may be
said that these consist in the ability to supply
water at the right time and in proper quantities to
the growing plants, resulting in the largest and
best development of these and facilitating a close
tilling of the soil, a rapid succession of crops
where the temperature is favorable, intensive farm-
ing, and a dense rural population, with all of the
accompanying benefits of rapid communication,
modern improvements, and social intercourse. As
one of the advantages also may be enumerated the
ability to put to use, by sewage irrigation, the waste
matter from organic life, bringing together and
making of value the sandy places and the sub-
stances which otherwise become nuisances.
There is no gain without some small loss, and it
must be recognized that there are some disadvan-
tages connected with irrigation. Labor and vigi-
lance are necessitated in applying water to the
fields. The proper supply may not be available
272
DISADVANTAGES. 273
when needed. Marshy conditions may result from
excessive use of water by neighbors or from una-
voidable causes, and, worse than all, the artificial
application of water to the soil may bring to the
surface such a quantity of earthy salts, known as
alkali, that the land, otherwise fertile, is ruined.
In humid climates also, after a heavy or clayey
soil has been irrigated, a sudden shower may occur,
drenching the fields and injuring the crops. Under
proper conditions, however, such as those realized
in parts of the country where water is intelligently
applied to the soil and the tilling is thoroughly
done, the most remunerative and beneficial returns
are had from the irrigated lands.
If, for any cause, the proper amount of water
cannot be had and applied as needed, irrigation
fails of being complete, and disasters ensue detri-
mental to the further spread of this method of
agriculture. Incomplete irrigation, like an unfin-
ished building or any other project stopped half-
way, is always discouraging. In so far, therefore,
as irrigation may be chronically liable to lack of
completeness through a deficient water supply, it
becomes disappointing.
A serious source of annoyance is that occasion-
ally experienced by scarcity of water. While
many of the irrigators enjoy a perennially abun-
dant supply, there are others in nearly every com-
munity whose farming operations are rendered
precarious because in one year or another they
2/4 IRRIGATION.
suffer from a shortage of water. The disaster
resulting depends largely upon the character of
the crops planted ; some kinds may be able to sur-
vive the drought and yield a small return, while
others may be a total loss.
The higher the development of an industry, the
greater the opportunities for failure and the wider
becomes the effect of disaster. Irrigation may be
considered as the highest type of agriculture, and,
under favorable circumstances, largest results may
be expected ; but, as in every other highly special-
ized industry, not every man makes a success.
If one hundred men should be placed upon new
land in a humid climate, and the same number on
irrigated farms in the arid region, it is probable
that at the end of five years there would be a
greater proportion of successful farmers among
those on the land depending upon rainfall. As
time went on, however, and the art of irrigation
became better understood, the returns from the
irrigated lands would far outstrip those from the
humid. With ability to apply water to the dry
fields at the right time, the regularity of the crop
is insured, and farming operations can be con-
ducted with a certainty unknown in humid climates.
Small farms are characteristic of successful irri-
gation development. Throughout Utah, for exam-
ple, the average size of an irrigated area is less
than thirty acres. By means of this, a family is
supported in comfort and there is a gradual in-
IRRIGATION.
ADVANTAGES. 275
crease in wealth. The advantages of ownership
in small tracts can be seen at a glance in the well-
tilled fields and the general appearance of subur-
ban activity and prosperity. There is none of the
loneliness and isolation, so depressing where
farmers' families live a mile from one another and
rarely see any one except a few acquaintances and
have little means of keeping in touch with the
activities of the outside world. The cultivation of
small tracts also necessitates more or less diversi-
fied farming : fruit trees and vines are raised, and
when one crop is removed another may be planted
if the season is not too severe. A few cattle and
sheep are kept upon the neighboring open range,
and there is continued occupation throughout the
year for all able-bodied members of the family in
caring for the fruits, the gardens, or the animals.
This is in marked contrast to the great wheat farms,
where the work is concentrated during a few
months and the prosperity of the family is de-
pendent upon a single crop. There is developed
in the irrigated regions a better class of citizens,
with broader experience and wider interests.
SEWAGE IRRIGATION.
Irrigation affords not only a method of stimulat-
ing plant development, but it has been found to be
advantageous in both humid and arid climates in
furnishing a means of disposal of various waste
products resulting from human and animal activi-
2/6 IRRIGATION.
ties, making these of use instead of allowing them
to become sources of annoyance. One of the
most convenient ways of getting rid of deleterious
substances has been to throw them into running
water, or to use flowing water as a means of con-
venience -for taking away organic matter which
otherwise, by accumulation and decay, would be
injurious to health. From the earliest times creeks
and • rivers have been regarded as the natural
means of deliverance from nuisances. With the
introduction of waterworks and systems of sewer-
age, we have, in effect, diverted the streams to our
doors and made them carry away our refuse.
At the same time these streams, or portions of
them, serve as sources of water supply, and it not
infrequently happens that a river which is in effect
an open sewer for a considerable population is
used at lower points to furnish drinking water.
This condition, when plainly stated, is highly
repugnant, but nevertheless exists throughout the
United States. The city of Washington, for exam-
ple, has for many years taken water directly from
the Potomac River, which receives near its head
waters the drainage from coal mines, the refuse
from manufactories, and along its course the sew-
age from towns and cities of considerable size.
Although a large portion of the organic matter i-n
the water may be destroyed by sunlight and expo-
sure to the air, yet, with the known great vitality
of the lower forms of life, it is highly probable
USE OF SEWAGE. 277
that the germs or bacilli of typhoid and related
filth diseases travel for many days without com-
plete destruction.
The existence of this condition has led to careful
study of the question whether a~*rjetter disposal of
sewage cannot be made. Although sources of
annoyance and even danger to public health, yet
these waste products have some value as fertilizers.
If, instead of defiling the rivers, the sewage can be
put upon agricultural land, two objects will be
accomplished — the preservation of the purity of
rivers, and the consequent great gain to health
and to various industries dependent upon pure
water, and the increase in fertility of sterile soil.
The conditions in Europe in regard to pollution
of streams have become far worse than in the
United States, because, of the greater density of
population. Elaborate experiments have been
made to demonstrate the practicability of using
sewage in the irrigation of farming land; and in
the vicinity of Paris, Berlin, and a number of other
cities large tracts are being cultivated by its use.
The chief difficulty arises from the fact that there
is a certain amount of sewage to be disposed of,
summer and winter, in the crop season and out of
it, and this quantity is often greatest during storms
or at times when plants do not need additional
moisture. It is, therefore, necessary to provide
large areas of land, and to regulate the application
of water to these more with reference to getting
2/8 IRRIGATION.
rid of the sewage than with thought of the actual
need of the plants.
In the handling of a large quantity of water a
very pervious or sandy soil has been found best,
since this will take up a large amount of sewage
and retain the organic matter where the roots of
the plants can reach it, acting to a certain de-
gree as a filter, and delivering clear and harmless
water to the drains beneath the surface. The
plants, during the season of growth, utilize the
organic matter, and by the aid of the nitrifying
organisms convert it into food for animals or
change it to innoxious substances.
The accompanying illustration (PI. XLV) gives
a view of a field of young corn being irrigated by
sewage at Plainfield, New Jersey. The sewage is
seen standing in furrows between the rows. The
water soaks away rapidly, and after the ground
has become partly dry more sewage is let in, this
being repeated as rapidly as possible without
injury to the growing plants. In this way a rank
growth is obtained. On PL XLVI, A, is shown a
view of the sewage-disposal works at Phoenix,
Arizona. Here the waste water from the city is
carried to a tract of low, sandy ground, portions
of which are rented to Chinese gardeners, who pro-
duce wonderful crops.
The view on the same plate, B, is of a similarly
irrigated farm in England, being situated, as shown
by the picture, in a densely populated region. If
IRRIGATION,
PLATE XLV.
SEWAGE FARMS. 279
properly conducted, there should be no odor from
such a farm, and its existence need not be a cause
of offence. If neglected, however, or improperly
managed, the sewage may become extremely un-
pleasant.
Sewage irrigation has been found profitable
on sandy soils, even in humid climates, where
the rain furnishes ordinarily an ample supply of
water for plants. The increased yield due to the
constant moistening of the soil and the addition of
fertilizing material more than repays the additional
labor and expense of applying the sewage. In the
arid regions, where water has greatest value, it
would seem self-evident that sewage irrigation
must ultimately be carried on to such an extent
that none of this material will be wasted.
This method of disposing of sewage may be
considered as a form of slow, intermittent filtration,
in which the top of the filter is used for growing
crops. After each watering the ground should be
cultivated, in order to stir the sewage into the soil
and bring the organic matter in contact with parti-
cles of earth. The frequent wetting of the ground,
followed by thorough cultivation and the sinking
away of the water, allowing the air to enter, favors
the growth of the nitrifying organisms which con-
vert the waste matter into plant food, this being
taken away by the crops as rapidly as it can be
utilized. There exists in some localities a strong
prejudice against the use of vegetables grown by
280
IRRIGATION.
sewage irrigation. Experience has shown, how-
ever, that with proper care in applying the sewage,
to keep it away from immediate contact with the
plants, and in washing the vegetables when used
in cooking, there is no more danger to health than
is likely to occur in the use of ordinary fertilizers,
such as stable manure. In fact, the precautions
... <./v%r .,r $• :f XJ^V^L >>x> A » * •» '" v< **•«£•* ;-s :
«• .V ».< ,i<, V- SA .»-. »'•' ••• ^^JL"/ ' i, ^ ./•'•''• J-1- .rt •"" "''- "' * ' "t •"'' "s.- , •»• "'
N', _\A -u. ii/. v.v- .x.- -* *•-. .^.Xr*^* ,rr- ** Jt •*• * I?-'-. ••''• -^ «/- "' --i^--, j,v
FIG. 88. — Channels and gates for sewage irrigation.
which naturally follow the use of sewage insure a
more careful handling of the product than is cus-
tomary in ordinary market-gardening operations.
The methods of controlling and applying the
sewage are similar to those employed in the use
of ditch water. The accompanying drawing (Fig.
88) shows a portion of a field through which per-
manent channels have been constructed. These
are made of concrete and provided with iron gates,
ALKALI. 281
making it possible to wash out the conduits and
clean them whenever necessary.
ALKALI.
Among the chief disadvantages which are con-
nected with the practice of irrigation is the accu-
mulation of alkali, or earthy salts, which under
some conditions may ultimately ruin the cultivated
fields. In most cases the injurious accumulation
of alkali can be prevented; in others the circum-
stances are such that destruction seems inevitable.
It has been noted on pages 224 and 227 that the
excessive use of water upon the fields promotes
seepage and movement of waters underground.
These ultimately appear upon the surface in the
lowest spots, where they may form marshes upon
lands which a few years previously were dry and
may have been highly cultivated.
The formation of marshy ground can often be
prevented by suitable drains, so that in many parts
of the country drainage must follow irrigation, and
the two become parts of one general system for
controlling moisture. The drain from one field
often serves as an irrigating ditch for another.
In the early days, before drains were built, it was
asserted that malarial conditions prevailed around
irrigated fields, and some alarm was expressed over
the supposed increase of fevers or other diseases
attributed to irrigation. There probably is no
basis for such fear, and irrigated farms are consid-
282 IRRIGATION.
ered as healthful as any part of the arid region,
the climate of which ranks among the most salu-
brious of all portions of the country.
The waters from seepage reaching the surface
may not be sufficient to produce marshy conditions,
but, being evaporated, leave on or near the surface
any salt which they may be carrying in solution.
Only the pure water can escape, and any matter
which was dissolved is necessarily left behind.
The most easily soluble natural salts are those of
sodium, the most familiar of these being sodium
chloride, the ordinary table salt, sodium carbonate,
commonly known as sal soda, or by the farmer
as black alkali, and sodium sulphate or Glauber's
salt. All of these, as well as salts of lime, mag-
nesia, potash, and various other compounds, are
likely to be present in small quantities in ordinary
soils, through the result of the decaying or break-
ing down of various rocks which compose the
crust of the earth. The water seeping, through
these soils and rocks, dissolves minute quantities
of these salts and carries them in suspension until
evaporation takes place.
Before irrigation is introduced the soluble mate-
rial is found to be rather uniformly distributed
through the soil. When water is applied to the
surface in considerable quantities, this immediately
dissolves the salts to the depth to which the water
penetrates. When the supply is continuous, a part
of the water may escape beneath the surface by
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XLVI,
A. SEWAGE IRRIGATION AT PHCENIX. AR:ZONA.
B. SEWAGE IRRIGATION IN ENGLAND.
INJURY BY ALKALI. 283
seepage and carry with it the salts in solution.
This seepage water, travelling slowly underground
for a distance perhaps of a mile or more, ultimately
finds its way to the surface, where it may enter a
stream and flow away, or may appear as moist
spots on valley lands.
Water evaporating from these moist spots leaves
behind the dissolved salts, and in course of months
or years these substances may accumulate until
they are visible to the eye as either a black stain or
a white glistening salt. Thus a fertile field which
is being cultivated year after year may become wet
by seepage, through the development of irrigation
at higher points in the valley, and the yield per
acre rapidly increase, due to this supply of moist-
ure and to the enriching material brought by the
water. Soon, however, spots appear where the
crops do not thrive, and an examination shows
that the earthy salts, beneficial in small quantities,
have become injurious and destructive by con-
centration.
Part of the water applied to a field, after saturat-
ing the soil returns gradually to the surface, to be
evaporated, being drawn up by capillary attraction
or by the action of the roots of the plants. If
there is an impervious subsoil, nearly all of the
water will, in time, thus be drawn up. In its pas-
sage downward the water, as previously stated,
•dissolves the soluble salts, and in its return to the
surface brings these with it and leaves them when
284 IRRIGATION.
evaporation takes place. Thus, in the original
condition, the alkali may be distributed uniformly
through 10 or 20 feet in depth of soil, and not be
sufficiently great to be noticeable, so that with or-
dinary dry farming no difficulties are encountered ;
but when water is applied, the salts are brought
toward the surface by the action just described, and
are concentrated within a few inches of the top,
where, if not removed, they prevent the develop-
ment of the plants. There are some soils, as in
Southern California, where an excavation, such as
a cellar, will show on its walls the bright, glisten-
ing alkali. Here orchards have been successfully
cultivated, but the artificial application of water
would immediately kill these by bringing the alkali
to the surface. Such conditions are extreme, but
illustrate the necessity of taking certain precautions.
The accumulation of alkali can be frequently
prevented by draining, the seepage water carrying
away the salts into the streams when an ample
amount of water has been applied to the surface.
The alkali can thus be washed out by producing a
rapid movement of the water away from the field,
either on the surface or through the soil into drains.
The mere flooding without washing away of the
salts is not effective. It has been pointed out that
where the chief difficulty arises from small quanti-
ties of black alkali or sodium carbonate, this can
be neutralized in part by the application of land
plaster, or gypsum. This, consisting of sulphate
WASHING OUT ALKALI. 285
of lime, changes the sodium carbonate into the
less harmful sodium sulphate and makes the lands
tillable.
There is always likelihood of a considerable
amount of alkali in the soils of arid regions, since
these have not been washed through countless
centuries by copious rains, such as occur in the
humid regions. More difficulty is experienced
with clayey soils than with sandy, as the water
passes rapidly through the latter, washing out the
alkali, and the roots of the crops are more widely
spread. Open, sandy soils do not become injured
by alkali, except under extreme conditions.
CHAPTER X.
IRRIGATION LAW.
AT the outset the layman, in looking up matters
of law relating to the use of water in irrigation,
is impressed with the apparent confusion and
contradictions he finds between the theory, the
practice, and the decisions of courts. There are,
however, certain underlying broad principles which
can be recognized, and in spite of the superficial
confusion and apparent lack of agreement among
judges deciding definite cases, these principles are,
on the whole, being adhered to and given applica-
tion in the majority of cases which arise.
Irrigation jurisprudence in our country is a
relatively new subject when compared with other
branches of the law, the decisions concerning which
have come down through centuries of English and
American judicature. It is also to a certain extent
revolutionary in its tendencies, since many opinions
concerning flowing waters which have been sus-
tained by generations of lawyers must be modified
to suit the conditions in the arid West. Neverthe-
less, the principles of equity and the^methods of
procedure are sufficiently elastic to take cognizance
286
IRRIGATION LAW. 287
of the altered conditions, and, following the needs
of the people, gradually swing into line with them.
This, of course, must be done by degrees, and some
criticism is provoked by the slowness with which
some judges grasp the basic principles and the
imperative requirements of the arid region, result-
ing from its peculiar physical condition. These
men are notably conservative ; some of them, com-
ing from humid sections, fail to realize at first the
true situation, and occasionally their decisions seem
to run counter to the underlying principles. Remedy
has been sought in some states by elaborate legis-
lation and codes of water law, but this has often
served rather to complicate and delay matters than
to expedite the best solution of the difficulties. A
legislative act may, in the minds of its framers, fit
the peculiar situation, and yet be unsuited to a still
wider circle of interests, or to localities where dif-
ferent conditions exist. Many experiments in this
line have been made, but none of them are wholly
satisfactory.
A great deal is said about the endless litigation
pertaining to water rights. It is true that in many
communities where irrigation is still in what may
be termed its formative or speculative stage, contro-
versies arise ; but in settled communities, where the
artificial application of water has been carried on
for many years and has been the means of creat-
ing homes and large property interests, — as, for
example, in Southern California, — these matters
288 IRRIGATION.
have been settled to a large extent, and litiga-
tion concerning water rights cannot be considered
as more frequent than that relating to land titles
or to any other of the important transactions of
daily life.
One of the principles which is being firmly estab-
lished by court decisions is that pertaining to the
original ownership of water by the people, as a
common stock to be drawn from by individuals
through rights which they acquire or hold by
actual beneficial use, subject to public control
under the police power or as a public use. All
claims to water are, under this principle, limited to
actual and beneficial use. The common stock of
water is limited in quantity, and until all of it is
put to beneficial use, persons desiring to thus em-
ploy portions of it are at liberty to do so, provided
they do not interfere with the rights of others.
Whenever this use is abandoned, the water re-
turns to the common stock, to supply the needs of
others. The fundamental principle is that bene-
ficial use is not only the foundation and basis of
the right, but likewise the measure and the limit
thereof.
One of the most striking differences between the
law governing the use of water in the arid region
and that governing its use in humid regions grows
out of the diametrically opposite way in which the
streams, whether above or under the ground, are
regarded by the lawmakers of the two sections.
RIPARIAN RIGHTS. 289
The common law of the United States, brought
from England, has for its object the preservation
of the natural streams in their channels without
diminution or disturbance. Each owner of land
bordering upon a stream or through which a brook
flows is protected against any change in the course
or behavior of the stream, except from natural
causes ; and he in turn is prohibited from bring-
ing about any modification which may affect other
landowners below or above. This requirement,
useful where water is not needed for irrigation, is
directly contrary to the vital necessities of the arid
region. It is impossible for agriculture to exist there
unless water is taken from the streams. The first
step toward settlement of the dry land, one taken
even before houses are built, is the diversion of
water from the streams. Not only is water thus
carried upon adjacent valley lands, but it may be
conveyed across natural divides, and the excess al-
lowed to flow into an entirely different system of
drainage.
The law of riparian rights must apparently be
set aside at the very outset because of the neces-
sities of occupation and settlement. In reality,
however, it may be considered, not as being abso-
lutely repealed, but as modified to suit the differ-
ence in climate. In the state of California, where
both humid and arid conditions prevail, riparian
rights have from the first been recognized, but the
decisions of the courts have finally interpreted these
2QO IRRIGATION.
to mean that riparian proprietors are entitled to cer-
tain privileges only to the extent to which these have
been utilized. That is to say, a landowner cannot
enjoin a diversion of the water on the stream above
him unless it interferes with some beneficial use by
him of the water; if, however, he was using the
stream to water a hundred cattle, and for nothing
else, he could compel sufficient water for these
cattle to be allowed to flow in the stream, but the
remaining water, which may be a hundred or a
thousand times the needs of his cattle, can be
taken out for the irrigation of dry lands, provided
no other beneficial use by lower proprietors is inter-
fered with. In other words, riparian rights can be
enforced only for the protection of the beneficial
use to which the water has been put by the riparian
owner. Although, as a naked legal right, the right
of the riparian owner to the undiminished flow of
the stream may be conceded, yet, when it comes to
the remedy for its infringement, he practically has
none, unless he can show, as a basis for his appli-
cation for an injunction, that there is an interference
with some beneficial use of the water by him. The
basis of a riparian owner's right, like the right of
an appropriator, is thus resolved back to the same
principle — that of beneficial use.
This view of the right to take or appropriate the
unused flowing water involves the consideration of
the ownership of streams. There can be no ques-
tion as to who owns the land through or along
OWNERSHIP OF WATER. 2QI
$
which a stream flows. Individuals or corporations
may unquestionably own the lands and the ditches
or structures conveying water, but the actual body
or corpus of the flowing water itself cannot, from
its very nature, be classed as property which is
capable of ownership by a person. It is held that
in the arid region, where the land originally be-
longed to the United States, and where portions
have been disposed of, the unused waters both
above and under the government lands still belong
to the government as part and parcel of the land.
Under federal statutes and state laws the use of
the water is guaranteed to certain individuals to the
extent to which they put it to beneficial use, and
usually in the order in which they have thus em-
ployed the water. In theory, at least, the man who
first irrigated 10 acres should continue indefinitely
to have enough water for his 10 acres, while the
man who next irrigated 20 acres can have sufficient
water for his area only when it is apparent that the
first man can also have his share ; and so on, each
person receiving an amount of water sufficient for
the needs of his cultivated tract in the order in
which this was put under irrigation (see p. 79).
This is known as the law of priorities. In
theory it is extremely simple and just, but in
practice it may be very complex, and its opera-
tions apparently unfair. For example, after a
country has been settled for a generation or more,
there does not seem to be any good reason why a
2Q2 IRRIGATION.
certain individual, who perhaps may be the poor-
est farmer of the community, should always have
ample water simply because the man from whom
he purchased or inherited his farm happened to
take out and apply water a few days or months
before his neighbors did.
A strict determination of priorities also leads
to waste of water, as the earliest settlers may
have been located at considerable intervals along
a stream, 10 or even 50 miles apart, and on the
lower, poorer lands, and so situated that water can
be taken to them in small quantities only at great
expense and loss of volume. As the country de-
velops, and every drop of water is needed, the
equities seem to demand that the priorities which
at first were fair and just should give way to the
largest and best use of the flowing streams. Ten
men should not be deprived of the use of the life-
giving fluid to satisfy the claims of a single indi-
vidual. If water were a property in the sense of
land, this consideration could not arise ; but if it
is something which belongs to the public, to be
enjoyed by the greatest number, the course of
events must bring about a gradual readjustment
by a series of compromises or exchanges, such as
has eventuated in the Cache la Poudre Valley of
Colorado and in other parts of the arid region.
Instead of distributing water strictly according
to -priority of time, there has arisen in certain
localities a system known as prorating water, or
PRIORITY OF APPROPRIATION. 293
dividing it proportionally to the amount available.
This may be considered as the opposite extreme
or alternative of the exercise of prior rights. In
the simplest form this is practised by farmers liv-
ing along a ditch which they have built in common
and have enlarged from time to time. Each man
shares in the water in proportion to the amount of
labor he has put upon the construction, this being
based presumably upon the area of land which he
intends to irrigate. No consideration is given to
the fact that one man near the head of the ditch
irrigated certain tractsbefore other farmers, who may
be at the lower end or upon an extension, commenced
to irrigate theirs. In times of scarcity the first
user of the water receives the same proportion of
his usual share as his associates, who may be later
comers, receive of their shares. Along extensive
canal systems the strict application of priorities
must occasionally give way in times of scarcity to
a proportional division of water.
Even in localities where theoretically water is
divided according to priority of appropriation,
there is practised a considerable amount of pro-
rating. It is impossible in a community to de-
prive a third or a quarter of the people of water,
and compel their crops to be destroyed, in order to
give the full appropriation to a favored few. Pri-
orities are also, for administrative purposes, occa-
sionally lumped, particularly in Utah, where a group
of farmers who irrigated before 1870 share equally,
294 IRRIGATION.
while those who irrigated from 1870 to 1880 are,
considered as holding secondary claims, and share
in common, dividing what is left after the priorities
are supplied, and so on, a general priority of right
by groups of irrigators being recognized, and
within these groups water being distributed pro-
portionally.
There is a tendency, as the country develops, to
abandon the strict observance of priorities, and
ultimately, when all of the land has been brought
under irrigation, to prorate the water. This is
essential to the utilization of the available supply
by the greatest possible number. Experience has
shown that in the economical management of any
large irrigation system water must be apportioned
to the different laterals with respect to physical
'conditions and needs rather than to the strict con-
struction of the priorities of the various irrigators.
In the same way the apportionment of water from
the rivers, to accomplish the most good, must ulti-
mately be along natural lines rather than be based
upon arbitrary systems resulting from the accidents
of location of the first settlers.
It has been held by able advocates that the
right to the use of the water becomes inseparably
appurtenant to the land upon which it is used, so
that if the land should be washed away by the
shifting of a river in flood, the right to the use of
the water would be extinguished. On the other
hand, it has been held that the right to the use of
WATER APPURTENANT TO LAND. 295
the water vests in the person who puts 'it to bene-
ficial use, and becomes appurtenant, but not insep-
arably appurtenant, to the land irrigated. In this
case, the owner of the land would have the right,
if the rights of the other persons were not affected
thereby, to change the use from one piece of land
to another ; but the right itself could only be held
as appurtenant to some piece of land — in other
words, there wpuld not be a floating water right
owned separate and apart from any land. The
practice and the current of judicial decision
throughout the arid region seem to be more in
accordance with the latter view. A man irrigates
a certain tract, and acquires the right to the con-
tinued use of a definite quantity of water for that
purpose ; a portion of this land may become
swampy by seepage or injured by alkali, or he
may purchase additional adjacent land or a farm
lying farther down the canal, where the soil is
better. Few people would dispute his right to use
the water upon this contiguous or neighboring
land, and he would continue his farming opera-
tions undisturbed, provided that in so doing he
did not interfere with the rights of others. He
might even arrange to receive his water through
another ditch, and a considerable number of his
neighbors might join with him. If, however, by
so doing, the enjoyment of other persons in their
vested rights should be injuriously affected, they
would have the right to prevent such changes.
296 IRRIGATION.
When we consider, however, not the right of the
individual irrigator, but that of a canal company,
the question becomes more complicated, and it
may be necessary to distinguish between rights to
divert water, rights to carry it, and rights to fur-
nish water to users and charge therefor; these
being distinct from the right to have the use of
the water for actual irrigation upon the land.
These various rights or privileges, which lead up
to the controlling factor, that of actually using
the water, have not been clearly distinguished,
but for convenience of discussion each may be
considered as being separate.
These several rights of diverting, carrying, and
supplying water to users are usually considered to
be enjoyed by a canal company as a public agency
in the nature of a carrier. There is no actual
ownership of the water in the same sense that the
canal and regulating works are owned; but while
the water is in the canal, the company may be
said to stand in the relation of a trustee, convey-
ing the water to the persons who have the eventual
right to put it to beneficial use. The company, if
it owns land, may also have the right to the use of
the water, but only to the extent to which the
water can be put to beneficial use.
The rate charged for carrying the water is in
several states fixed by the county commissioners.
The manner in which the water is conveyed to the
places of use, as well as the point of diversion, may
RIGHTS OF DIVERSION. 297
be changed, when by so doing injury to other in-
terests are not involved.
Canal companies, as appropriators, are allowed
to divert water from the streams, and are given
reasonable time in which to begin the work,
after posting the notice of appropriation ; and
irrigators who may wish to use the water are
also allowed a reasonable time in which to com-
plete the act of appropriation by applying water
in the cultivation of the soil. No definite rule has
been established as to what constitutes this reason-
able time, though the usual legal rules concerning
due diligence are generally applied. It has been
held that when the water is thus used the right
under the appropriation relates back to the time
when the notice was posted, or to the time when
water was diverted from the stream by the canal.
The public records of these matters, which in some
states are required to be kept by the county offi-
cials, are often extremely defective as regards the
various claims and times of appropriation, the facts
being usually established, if at all, by testimony
taken in disputed cases.
In several of the states rights to use of water
cannot be obtained until application has been made
and the state engineer has ascertained in a more
or less definite way whether there is any unappro-
priated water. The tendency of recent legislation
is in the direction of strengthening this important
detail. As leading up to the full knowledge as to
298 IRRIGATION.
the amount of unappropriated water it is necessary
to ascertain first how much water has already been
appropriated. Adequate provision for this purpose
is gradually being made by the legislatures of some
of the states. In Idaho, for example, the state
engineer is authorized to ascertain the facts as to
amount of water flowing in the streams, the acreage
irrigated, and the size and capacity of the canals.
Having brought together these and other essential
facts, he becomes practically the expert witness of
the court, thus doing away to a large extent with
the disastrous effects resulting from the testimony
of interested witnesses as to the amount of water
which they have used.
The Idaho system is generally regarded as an
advance upon that of Wyoming, where the state
engineer not only ascertains the facts but is in
effect a judicial officer rendering decisions as to
the amount of water to which the various claimants
are entitled. The prime requisite is to have the
actual facts ascertained in a clear and impartial
manner, so that decision when rendered either by
the ordinary courts or by a special tribunal may be
in accord with the facts, and the waters may be
apportioned in accordance with actual conditions
rather than the extravagant claims of interested
parties. Until some such method is provided in
all of the states it will be impossible for full de-
velopment to take place, because of the uncertain-
ties surrounding the matter.
CHAPTER XL
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE ARID REGIONS.
EACH portion of the arid region possesses cer-
tain peculiarities of topography, climate, water
supply, and cultural conditions. In discussing
these it is convenient to consider them by political
divisions, since the latter are easily recognized by
name. Each state and territory is so large that
it embraces usually a number of distinct climatic
conditions, but in a brief reView these may be
classed together. For convenience the states and
territories are here taken up in alphabetical order ;
they are : Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho,
Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah,
Washington, and Wyoming.
The following, table gives the extent of irrigation
at the beginning and end of the decade 1890-1900,
and shows the gradual increase of this method of
tilling the soil. The location of the irrigated areas
is shown in Fig. 14, p. 54, together with the
irrigable lands. The possible water supply is
given in the last column of the table on p. 55
in millions of acres. There is water enough for
over 60,000,000 acres if fully conserved by reser-
299
300
IRRIGATION.
voirs or developed by wells, tunnels, and diversion
canals.
AREA IRRIGATED.
STATE OR TERRITORY.
1890.
1900.
1905.
Arizona
Acres.
7O,OOO
Acres.
190,000
Acres.
2OO,OOO
California
Colorado
Idaho
I,2OO,OOO
I ,OOO,OOO
230 ooo
1,500,000
1 ,400,000
6oo,OOO
1 ,8OO,OOO
1 ,900,000
8oo,OOO
Montana
380,000
I ,OOO,OOO
1,300,000
Nevada . . ' . .
240,000
5 1 0,000
600,000
New Mexico ....
Oregon
Utah
95,000
180,000
300,000
200,000
400,000
650,000
2OO,OOO
4OO,OOO
7OO,000
Washington ....
1 00,000
1 50,000
2OO,OOO
Wyoming
Subhumid
250,000
70,000
600,000
100,000
7OO,OOO
300,000
Total
4,1 15,000
7,^00,000
9,IOO,OOO
The total area of these states has been given
on p. 6. A comparison of this with the acreage
irrigated shows that the land cultivated in this
manner forms less than i per cent of the total
extent of most of these states. It is not to be
supposed that the whole of the arid region is irri-
gable, but it is highly probable that the area can
ultimately be increased until ten times as much
land has been brought under cultivation. The
size of these states is so great that it is impossible
to form a clear conception of their extent without
making comparisons with other political divisions
302 IRRIGATION.
in the United States and with some of the coun-
tries of the Old World. A single county in one
of these Western states or territories may be
larger than one of the older states of the Atlantic
seaboard. To bring out this comparison Fig. 89
has been prepared, showing the outlines of the
states. Across these have been lettered the
names of several foreign countries whose area is
very nearly equal to that of one or more of the
states. For example, Spain has about the same
extent as Utah and Nevada. Italy is approxi-
mately equal in area to Arizona, or to the Philip-
pine Islands. Various other interesting comparisons
are afforded in the East as well as in the West.
Similar comparisons are made on Fig. 90, which
shows only the western portion of the United
States, and with a little different combination
of foreign countries. In particular, the states
Oregon and Washington are seen to be equivalent
to Great Britain, Ireland, Denmark, and Switzer-
land. .Having in mind the great difference in
population, we cannot fail to be impressed with
the opportunities for increase of population and
industries, especially as the resources of these
Western states are of great extent and have hardly
yet been exploited. There is apparently no reason
why our Western states should not, in the distant
future, be capable of furnishing homes and profit-
able occupation for as large a population as some
of the countries whose names are placed across
COMPARISON OF AREAS.
303
them. The ultimate realization of such conditions
rests, however, largely upon the treatment which
FIG. 90. —Western United States compared with foreign countries.
in the near future shall be accorded to the water
resources, especially in the way of guarding these
from speculative monopoly.
304 IRRIGATION.
ARIZONA.
This territory, not yet admitted as a state, em-
braces 112,920 square miles, or 72,268,800 acres,
in the driest and hottest part of the United States.
Its population in 1900 was 122,931, nearly equal
to that of the states of Nevada and Wyoming
combined. The average for the whole territory is
about one person to the square mile. In area the
territory is a little larger than Italy, which has a pop-
ulation of 33,000,000, and a little smaller than the
United Kingdom of Great Britain, with 41,000,000
people. The principal part of the population is
in the Salt River Valley, in the vicinity of Phoenix,
the capital city. The land here, as well as in many
other parts of the territory, is extremely fertile, and
lacks only an adequate water supply.
Increase of population and industry is limited
directly by the possibilities of water storage.
More land has already been brought under ditch
and partly cultivated than can be supplied with
water in ordinary years. Great tracts of country
can, however, be utilized for home-making when
the waters which now run to waste are -carefully
held for time of need.
Not only is the necessity for water storage
greater in Arizona than in any other part of the
United States, but the opportunities for construct-
ing reservoirs on a large scale seem to be best
there. There are in the territory a considerable
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XLVII.
ARIZONA. 305
«..
number of valleys whose position and form offer
unusual facilities for holding the occasional floods.
Considering the territory as a whole, there are
two distinct provinces, separated by a line of cliffs
or mesas extending diagonally from northwest to
southeast. Above, or north of, this line the coun-
try may be pictured as a plateau having an eleva-
tion of approximately 6000 feet, much of it covered
with pine forests. The surface is undulating, and
mountain masses rise from it. The rivers have cut
enormous canyons in this plateau, the Grand Can-
yon of the Colorado being one of the most stupen-
dous gorges in the world.
The smaller tributaries of the Colorado flow in
narrow gorges 1000 feet or more in depth, and the
small streams which occupy the bottoms of these
cannot be taken out to irrigate the upland. Agri-
culture without the artificial application of water
is carried on to a small extent, especially on the
higher plateaus, and some irrigation is practised
wherever sufficient ground can be found along the
mountain streams. The northern part of the ter-
ritory cannot be considered as having large oppor-
tunities for the creation of homes when compared
with the southern part.
From the south front of the great escarpment
or mesa a number of streams flow southerly,
joining to form Salt River and its large tributary,
the Verde. These unite and flow westerly through
a broad valley, entering Gila River, which con-
306 IRRIGATION.
tinues southwesterly across the territory into Col-
orado River. The valley of Salt River on the
south merges imperceptibly into the broad desert
traversed by the Gila and reaching beyond the
Mexican border. There are millions of acres of
good land in this area, but only a small portion can
ever be supplied with water, even after all the
possible reservoirs have been built and artesian
wells constructed. Since the maximum possible
supply falls far short of the needs of all the land,
the remainder must always be barren, unless some
desert-loving plants valuable to man be discovered
and introduced.
A short distance below the junction of the Salt
and Verde a number of canals, heading on one
side or the other of the stream, take out all of the
ordinary flow and carry it to the lands in the vicin-
ity of Phoenix. The altitude here is about 1000
feet, and the climatic conditions are such that
oranges and other citrus fruits thrive, and in some
localities dates have been successfully introduced.
The principal forage crop is alfalfa, of which from
five to seven cuttings a year are made if ample
water is available. This enables the farmers to
produce a large amount of hay from a relatively
small acreage. With other products there are usu-
ally two crops each year, and sometimes more, the
ground being immediately cultivated and planted
after each harvest. Thus, with continuous warmth
and sunshine and with the necessary water, in-
ARIZONA. 307
tensive farming is practised, and it is estimated
that a family of five persons can be well supported
upon twenty acres, or even less, if covered with
producing orchards.
Only a small portion of the good land is in
actual use, the amount appearing almost insignifi-
cant on a map of the territory. This can be
greatly increased by water storage, and in a less
degree by deep or artesian wells. Around the
Salt River Valley, on both the north and the east,
among the mountains, are a number of storage
sites, the most notable of these being at the junc-
tion of Tonto Creek and Salt River. Careful sur-
veys of several of these localities have been made,
plans prepared, and cost and benefits estimated.
These investigations should be extended to include
every possible locality.
South of the Salt River is the Upper Gila, a
stream somewhat smaller, or furnishing a less
amount of water. Along its course in the eastern
part of the territory are several broad valleys, the
most noteworthy being in the vicinity of Solomon-
ville. Here, as in many other parts of the terri-
tory, Mormon pioneers have taken out ditches and
brought large tracts of land under cultivation.
Farther down, canals have been taken out to cover
land southeasterly from Phoenix, in the vicinity of
the town of Florence, and the supply here has been
decidedly diminished by the diversions at points
above.
308 IRRIGATION.
Still farther west, and down-stream from Flor-
ence, near the junction of Salt River, is a large
tract of desert land intersected by small, steep
mountains which seem to rise out of the nearly
level floor. This is the Gila River Indian Reser-
vation, set aside for the Pima, Papago, and Mari-
copa Indians. These people have always been
tillers of the soil, having practised irrigation long
before the advent of the whites. Like most agri-
cultural natives, they have been peaceable and
friendly, and have even assisted immigrants in
defending themselves from attack by the savage
Apaches who dwell in the mountains near the
head waters of the stream.
With the gradual diversion of the waters of
Gila River in the vicinity of Florence, and particu-
larly in the Solomonville Valley, the quantity in- the
river has been diminished, until for several years in
succession there has not been a sufficient amount
for the Indians. They have been forced to depend
upon chance support, and, induced by hunger, to
steal the cattle of their white neighbors. Their
children have been sent to school and educated,
but, on returning to their homes, find nothing .to
do, as farming cannot be practised without a water
supply. To prevent actual starvation, the govern-
ment has appropriated money for feeding these
Indians, and while going to great expense in
education, is at the same time pauperizing the
people.
ARIZONA. 309
To enable these Indians to again become self-
supporting, it is essential that they be provided
with an ample water supply. Many investigations
have been made, and it has been found that there
are a number of places on the Gila River where
reservoirs of large size can be built. It is not prac-
ticable, however, to construct small reservoirs, as
these would be quickly filled with silt, and the ex-
pense of building dams for them would be nearly
as great as that of structures for reservoirs of the
largest possible capacity.
A considerable part of the Indian lands has
been found to be saturated .with water. Much of
this is of good quality, and if pumped by using the
power from mountain streams, it will be possible to
restore the ancient agricultural practices. Believ-
ing this to be more economical than the construc-
tion of storage reservoirs, Congress in 1904 made
an appropriation for sinking wells and beginning
the installation of pumping plants.
There are a number of smaller streams in the
southern part of the territory, each of which is now
utilized to its full capacity when at ordinary stages.
The floods of these streams could be stored and
used upon tracts of government land, thus provid-
ing opportunities for many additional farms. The
violence of some of these deluges is illustrated by
PL VIII, giving a view of the bridge across Salt
River, which was partly destroyed by a rush of
water that carried out practically all of the dams
3IO IRRIGATION.
and head gates along its course. This is excep-
tional ; but it is possible to provide storage to hold
the ordinary floods on many of the streams and
reduce the violence of the extraordinary ones.
There is probably no place in the United States,
except possibly in Southern California, where the
marvellous results accomplished by irrigation are
more conspicuous than in Arizona, particularly in
the Salt River Valley in the vicinity of Phoenix.
Here, on the broad desert valley, bare of vegeta-
tion except for an occasional dry, dusty group of
thorny plants, the venturesome pioneer took out
small ditches, many of these following the ancient,
almost obliterated, lines of the canals of the prehis-
toric agricultural Indians, the ruins of whose towns
dot the plains. Under the brilliant and intense
sunlight, the moistened soil yielded bountifully, and
the small ditches were rapidly enlarged and canals
built to cover more and more ground.
The dry climate, especially of the winter season,
is found to be advantageous to human beings as
well as to plants, and renewed vitality has been
given to many an invalid from the cold and stormy
North. The success attained with oranges and
other citrus fruits, as well as with grapes, prunes,
plums, and various fruits needing the warm climate,
has led to a rapid widening of the area devoted to
vineyards (PL XLVII) and orchards, these revenue-
producing vines and trees being supplemented by
luxuriant growth of palms, rose bushes, and innu-
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XLVIII.
ARIZONA. 31*1
merable varieties of ornamental and flowering
shrubs. The delicate house plants, tenderly cared
for in the North, here develop to wonderful size
and variety, being hardly recognizable in the sturdy,
treelike forms which threaten to bury the suburban
houses in a perfect jungle of flowering branches
and creepers, all the result of watering the dusty
plains.
The fruits of the Salt River Valley are not
brought into immediate competition with those of
Southern California, as it is possible to put them
upon the market at an earlier date, and a certain
advantage is given in a shorter haul toward the
Atlantic and Gulf states, this being an important
item in the handling of the fresh fruits. Great
quantities are thus shipped out; but the prin-
cipal dependence is placed upon dried fruits (PL
XLVIII) and upon alfalfa, which is used in fatten-
ing cattle that range throughout the year upon the
mountains adjacent to the Salt River Valley and
upon the plateaus of the northern part of the state.
The development of irrigation and the enlarge-
ment of the cultivated area is continuing up to the
limit of the water supply, and many canals have
been built or are projected to cover areas for which
in ordinary seasons there is not sufficient water.
In order to bring about economy, some of the
ditches and canals have been consolidated, reduc-
ing the losses by seepage and evaporation. This
is the first step in the evolution of a system of con-
312 IRRIGATION.
trol which must ultimately be worked out to suit
the conditions in each locality.
The next and most important step in growth is
the construction of reservoirs wherever practicable,
since there is need for all of the water which can
possibly be held. The erratic floods are too valu-
able to be allowed to run to waste, destroying
property along their course. With increase of
population and introduction of improved varieties
and new species of fruits, the value of the products
per acre must steadily rise to a point where the
construction of even the most expensive reservoirs
now projected will more than justify the outlay.
CALIFORNIA.
Excepting Texas, California is the largest state
in the Union, having an area of 155,980 square
miles, or a little over three-fourths that of France
or Germany. It includes almost every variety
of topography and climate, from elevated mountain
masses with perpetual snow down to fertile and
well-watered fields and to the barren, torrid deserts
300 feet below sea level. The most notable feature
is the great central valley of the state, drained in
its northern part by the Sacramento River and in
the southern end by the San Joaquin River. These
rivers, flowing toward each other from opposite
directions, finally merge, their united waters being
poured westward through the Golden Gate into the
Pacific. On the east of this great valley are the
CALIFORNIA. 313
lofty, snow-capped mountains known as the Sierra
Nevada, from which come many streams tributary
to the great rivers just mentioned. West of the
great valley, and between it and the ocean, are the
irregular groups of mountains which make up
the Coast Range. Among these are long, narrow
valleys. To the north of San Francisco Bay
these mountains are for the most part humid and
well-forested, but to the south they are dry and
support only a scanty vegetation.
The southern part of California is a region dif-
fering both in topography and in climate, and has
such distinctive features and interests that there
has resulted an occasionally expressed desire on
the part of the people to become an independent
state. The southern prolongation of the Sierra
Nevada, curving around the head of the San Joa-
quin Valley, forms a barrier between Southern
California and the remainder of the state. The
railroad crosses over what is known as Tehachapi
Pass. Below this is the Mohave Desert, which
extends easterly and southerly to the Colorado
River. A lofty range of 'mountains borders this
desert on the west and cuts it off from the ocean.
At the southern and western base of these moun-
tains are several valleys opening toward the ocean,
or extending to it, and having a climate such that
citrus fruits of the best quality, nuts, and various
semitropical plants are successfully raised. A
dense population has gathered here in the cities
314 IRRIGATION.
of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside, San
Diego, and in many towns, and the well-distributed,
though small, water supply has enabled a develop-
•v •••'••••'•• • • v '••-•/
NEW YORK ;>
PENiN.
OHIO
fc \ S.C. ..Xtf ^
G1A. \
FlG. 91. — California compared with the Atlantic states lying in the
same latitude.
ment of irrigation in the rural districts surpassing
that found elsewhere in the United States.
The vast extent of California, with its surpris-
CALIFORNIA.
315
ing differences in climate, must be borne in mind
when discussing the resources of the state and
NCE
FIG. 92. — California compared with Old World countries lying in the
same latitude.
the dependence of these upon irrigation. In the
southern portion in particular all development and
land values rest directly upon the ability to obtain
316 IRRIGATION.
a water supply, while in the northern portion dry
farming is generally successful and irrigation has
value mainly as insuring a better crop or a higher-
priced class of products. To obtain a more real-
istic conception of the extent of the state, Figs.
91 and 92 are given, these showing in outline the
state of California as placed on a map of the
Alantic coast states of this country, and on a simi-
lar map of Spain and northern Africa. In both
of these sketches California is shown in its true
position relative to distance from the equator, but
in Fig. 91 it is reversed, or turned over, so that
its coast line will coincide nearly with that of the
Atlantic coast.
By reference to Fig. 91 it is seen that Cali-
fornia extends from the latitude of northern Penn-
sylvania down to that of South Carolina and
northern Georgia. San Francisco corresponds in
position fairly well with Norfolk, Virginia, and
San Diego with Charleston, South Carolina. It
is interesting to note that in each of the portions
of states included within the dotted outline of Cali-
fornia, there is now a population nearly equal to,
or exceeding, that of the entire state of California,
which is, in round numbers, 1,500,000. New Jer-
sey and North Carolina have each nearly 2,000,000
inhabitants. Maryland, with the District of Colum-
bia, has a population almost identical with that of
California, and eastern Pennsylvania far exceeds
either of these. With the natural resources of
CALIFORNIA. 317
California so far exceeding those of the eastern
Gulf states, it seems incredible that such great
inequalities of population continue indefinitely.
When a comparison is made of California with
the Old World,' as in Fig. 92, the striking differ-
ence in population is again brought out. Portugal
has over 5,000,000 inhabitants, Algeria has nearly
as many, and Spain has over 18,000,000.
The methods of irrigation and the habits of the
irrigators are as diverse as the great extent of the
state and the variety of climatic and topographic
conditions would imply. In the more humid por-
tions of the north, irrigation is not practised or is
regarded as something exceptional or of doubtful
utility. In the centre of the state, where the large
rivers pour their floods from the Sierra Nevada out
into the dry valley, great canals have been built
and water is lavishly used. South of Tehachapi,
where the rivers are comparatively small and
population is dense, there is the most complete con-
servation of scanty supplies, and irrigation is re-
garded as the highest triumph of the agricultural
art. Great dams have been built, such as the
Sweetwater, Otay, Hemet, and Bear Valley, for
storing floods, and expensive cement-lined ditches
and wooden flumes have been constructed for tak-
ing the precious fluid to the fields with the least
possible loss.
Among the foothills on the eastern side of the
Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys gold was early
318 IRRIGATION.
discovered in placers, and these were worked by
means of water taken out by innumerable flumes
and ditches. With the decline of this business,
due largely to the so-called anti-debris law, many of
these ditches were used to irrigate little sidehill
farms, and it was found that valuable fruits could be
raised, particularly oranges, on the lower hill slopes.
Thus many of the structures originally made for
mining have been repaired and gradually enlarged
for purposes of irrigation.
The greater part of the valley of California, in
spite of the small rainfall, has been used for grow-
ing wheat. This has been successfully cultivated
even upon the adjoining foothills. The large
wheat farms cultivated without irrigation are, how-
ever, being gradually encroached upon by orchards
and by alfalfa fields, as water has been brought
out from the mountains. The tendency is to sub-
divide the great holdings of the Sacramento and
San Joaquin valleys. The application of water
makes possible the creation of a considerable num-
ber of small irrigated farms in place of one dry
farm devoted to raising grains. This results in a
decided increase in population, since a family can
find support upon 40, or even 20, acres of land
planted in orchards and vineyards, while ten cr
even a hundred times this area may be devoted to
a single wheat farm.
Irrigation construction in California has pro-
ceeded with relative slowness during recent years,
CALIFORNIA. 319
partly because of the effect of the operations of
what is known as the "district law," passed in
1887, allowing the creation of irrigation districts
in some respects similar to municipal organizations,
but having a single object; namely, that of deliver-
ing water in sufficient quantities for the utilization
of the lands embraced within their borders. One
of the principal features of this law has been the
authority conferred to bond the district, and to
dispose of these bonds for the purchase or con-
struction of irrigation works. Without entering
into details, it is sufficient to say that over forty
irrigation districts were formed and bond issues
authorized to the extent of millions of dollars.
Through lack of sufficient safeguards the districts
received comparatively little benefit from the dis-
posal of these bonds and the property holders
awoke to find themselves struggling under heavy
debts, with little or no improvement as regards
water supply. Many of the bonds issued are com-
paratively worthless, and discredit has been cast
upon reclamation methods of this character.
The way in which the canals lead out from the
principal rivers in the San Joaquin Valley is illus-
trated in Fig. 93, which shows the canal system
from Kern River, California. The dotted lines are
contours and show points of equal elevation, the
lowest being 300 feet above sea level. The
higher canals are taken out as nearly as pos-
sible along these contours, in order to cover
320
IRRIGATION.
the most ground. Other canals lower down
the river follow down the slopes, the resulting
FIG. 93. — Canal system from Kern River, California.
arrangement being fan-shaped, fitting the topog-
raphy. Water is usually had in abundance from
IRRIGATION.
PLATE XLIX.
A. IRRIGATION OF VINEYARD IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY,
CALIFORNIA.
B. IRRIGATION OF ORCHARD IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY,
CALIFORNIA.
CALIFORNIA. 321
these canals, and is somewhat lavishly employed,
as illustrated on PI. XLIX, giving views of the
irrigation of an orchard and of a vineyard. For
alfalfa, with its three to five cuttings during the
summer, even more water is employed than in the
orchards, in order to wet the ground thoroughly
after the removal of each crop. With the gradual
increase of orchards and the extension of land
under intensive farming, less amounts of water are
being wasted.
In striking contrast to this lavish use of water
is the economy practised in Southern California,
where the little rills from tunnels driven into the
hills or from wells are carefully guarded and
carried into pipes, to be distributed underground
or brought to the surface near each garden plant
or orchard tree, as described on p. 207, under
the head of subirrigation. The economies prac-
tised in the southern part of the state must
ultimately be employed even in the great valley
with its large water supply, for this, although
impressive to the eye, is far short of the needs of
all the good land which can be irrigated.
The drought of recent years has borne particu-
larly hard upon the irrigators of Southern California,
where the supply of water was already limited, and
many enterprises for obtaining water have been
undertaken which otherwise would not have been
considered. Almost innumerable wells have
been sunk in the country about the vicinity of San
322 IRRIGATION.
Bernardino, and from there to Los Angeles, these
being located on the slopes of debris coming from
the canyons, and also in and adjacent to the stream
channels. Some of these wells have yielded large
amounts of water, and in a few localities artesian
conditions have been found, resulting in a very
valuable contribution to the wealth of this part of
the state.
Not only have ordinary vertical wells been con-
structed, but what may be considered horizontal
wells have been dug, with the idea of intercepting
small amounts of water which may be progressing
slowly beneath the surface. These consist of
tunnels run on a slightly rising grade into the
gravel slopes, or even into the rocky walls of the
valley or canyons. Sometimes these tunnels, after
penetrating the solid rock, turn and go beneath the
bed of a stream, in the hope of finding in the deep
deposit of boulders and cobblestones some water
which can be diverted. As a result of this under-
cutting, several controversies have arisen, persons
using the surface flow claiming that diversions
from the pervious material, even though lying far
beneath the surface, are in effect an unlawful
taking away of the flow. It is argued that the
stream cannot continue on the surface unless the
underground passages are completely filled with
water, and that by draining these an equivalent
amount is sooner or later taken from above. This
matter is of importance not only in California, but
CALIFORNIA. 323
elsewhere, and has been a point at issue in an im-
portant lawsuit over waters of Los Angeles River,
as noted on page 235.
The results attained by this complete conserva-
tion of the water supply of the southern part of
the state, and the utilization of comparatively in-
significant sources as well as those of considerable
size, are shown in the wonderful increase of culti-
vated area and the high degree of perfection reached
in the care and management of orchards and vine-
yards. The visitor to Southern California finds it
almost impossible to conceive that the tracts now
covered by trees and vines were only a few years
ago a bare and apparently sandy waste, not fit even
for grazing except after an unusual rain. He is
further incredulous when told that the homes of
comfort, and even of luxury, surrounded by palms
and almost covered with flowering shrubs, have
been paid for by the products of these small
orchards, and that families are making a living
and getting ahead in the world by the cultivation
of fifteen, or ten, or even fewer, acres of land which
before the introduction of water can hardly be said
to have had any value.
Cities such as Riverside, Redlands, and Anaheim,
and innumerable towns, with their thickly settled
suburbs stretching out along the lines of canals or
supply pipes, are not only monuments to the energy
and perseverance of the men who founded them,
but also living testimonials of the value of water
324 IRRIGATION.
conservation. The system of supply, now grown
to large proportions, may properly be classed with
the wonders of the world. Surface streams have
been controlled and underground waters brought
to the surface, creating a volume of water whose
value, measured by the results produced, runs up
into millions of dollars.
One of the greatest matters of surprise has been
the success attained during the trying season of
drought which culminated in 1899 and 1900. There
had been for a decade less than the normal pre-
cipitation, and for two years the rainfall had not
reached one-half the average for the region ; but,
in spite of misgivings, the water supply, especially
that from underground sources, did not diminish
as would have been expected, and the numerous
wells and the tunnels driven into the hills did not
appear to be affected by the scarcity of precipita-
tion. The extra care due to the realization of the
need of economy resulted, not only in saving the
fruits and crops, but in some instances the yield
was actually increased over that of seasons when
the water supply was abundant. It is probable
that there is still to be had a large amount of water
from underground, and that by the use of cheap
power, such as that obtained by electrical transmis-
sion or by burning the crude petroleum produced
in large quantities in California, great volumes of
water may be pumped to the surface for raising
high-grade fruits.
CALIFORNIA. 325
This underground supply in some localities is
showing the effect of the drain upon it, although
the seepage or percolating water in some of the
springs or cienegas has apparently increased.
This is especially the case on the Santa Ana
River, which, rising in the mountains, flows upon
the upper edge of San Bernardino Valley, the
water being all taken out for irrigation or disap-
pearing into gravel washes. At the lower end of
the valley, where the outlet is through a narrow,
rocky pass, water reappears upon the surface and
a perennial stream is formed, as shown on PL
IX, A. This stream, instead of becoming dry,
as might have been expected from the increased
use of water in San Bernardino Valley, has actu-
ally grown larger, and from the flow of about 10
or 15 second-feet of ten years ago it has risen to
four or five times that amount. This is probably
due to the results of more complete irrigation of
the valley, the gradual saturation of the subsoils,
and the progress of the water slowly by seepage
from the fields where applied rrionths or even years
before down toward the outlet of the valley, again
forming the river.
This careful conservation and complete develop-
ment of surface and underground waters, and the
conveyance and distribution of these in expensive
conduits, as shown in PL L, have necessitated
heavy expenditures and the annual payment of
sums which seem very large when compared with
326 IRRIGATION.
the cost of water elsewhere, as for example in the
San Joaquin Valley. Under the Fresno Canal,
which diverts water from King River, a water
right, or privilege of purchase, is worth about $40
per acre. The annual charge for water is only 65
cents per acre. This is very cheap even for this
valley. In this locality the water plane has risen
to within 10 to 15 feet of the surface, and very lit-
tle additional water is needed for irrigation.
In contrast to these conditions are those in South-
ern California. For example, under the Anaheim
Union Water Company, in Orange County, water
is sold at $4.80 per acre-foot and is considered
cheap, but the company is reported to lose money
each year and to make up the loss by an assess-
ment on the water-using shareholders.
At Corona, or South Riverside, in Riverside
County, the charge in 1900 was $15 per acre-foot
of water. Owing to the drought, there was but
one-half the usual amount of water delivered dur-
ing the year. This supply is largely from a pump-
ing system, and the charge for the year 1900 was
above the average, owing to improvements that
were made during the season.
Under numerous pumping plants near Azusa, in
Los Angeles County, water has been sold for irri-
gation during the years 1898 to 1900 at from
" 3 to 5 cents per hour-inch"; this is at the rate of
$18 to $30 per acre-foot. At Azusa the cost is $5
per acre irrigated from the Azusa Canal, which
/RRIGATION.
PLATE L.
CALIFORNIA. 327
diverts water from the San Gabriel River. At
Ontario $10 per acre is charged each year.
At Hollywood, a suburb of Los Angeles, a
charge of 10 cents per 1000 gallons is made for
water, or $32.31 per acre-foot. The land is used
for growing lemons, but the water rate is too high
to permit of large commercial success.
The annual charge for the irrigation of citrus
lands in Southern California varies from $5 to $30
per acre, and will probably not average far from
$10 per acre irrigated, the supply being from 12 to
36 inches in depth of irrigation water. In addition
there is about 15 inches of winter rain. The citrus
fruits in general need twice the water required by
the deciduous fruits, and alfalfa usually has more
than that used by either. Under the Gage canal
system at Riverside, where citrus fruits are grown
almost exclusively, and where the soil is somewhat
porous, derived largely from granitic debris, with
a good slope and with a rainfall of 6 inches in the
winter, there was applied during 1900 about 2.2
feet in depth of water. This was an average for
the entire system, and irrigation was practised
every month in the year, owing to winter drought.
Other estimates for this canal are given on page
218.
In Redlands the duty of water is usually con-
sidered as 24 inches in depth for citrus fruits,
applied during the six months May to October in-
clusive, the normal winter rainfall being 13 J inches.
328 IRRIGATION.
Under the Sweetwater system, in San Diego County,
1402 acre-feet of water served 3800 acres of citrus
fruits from May to November, 1899, during a
drought. Deducting for domestic consumption of
water, this leaves .28 foot in depth applied. The
trees' survived and a crop was gathered, but this is
regarded as an extreme case.
The importance of the fruit industry to Southern
California may be judged from the statement that
in 1899 the shipments of oranges aggregated nearly
10,000 car loads, valued at $7,000,000. The assess-
ors report for the seven southern counties over
2,000,000 bearing trees, and over half as many
non-bearing. The principal orange-growing locality
is Riverside, which produced a third of all these
oranges, and next Redlands and the Azusa Valley,
each producing about 10 per cent of the entire
output. The orange crop in the seven counties
was produced from about 48,000 acres, or 75 square
miles, of which about 40 square miles contained
bearing trees. The first cost of the land, including
the planting and care of orchards, has been esti-
mated to be $25,000,000. The profits of the
grower have been found to be 12 per cent. The
orange land with water, but without trees, is esti-
mated to be worth from $250 to $300 per acre,
while with bearing trees the price ranges from a
thousand dollars per acre up to double that amount
for groves with fine location, navel trees, and first-
class water rights.
COLORADO. 329
COLORADO.
Among the irrigating states Colorado stands
next to California in the amount of land watered.
The crops raised are decidedly different, in both
character and value, owing to the colder climate,
which prevents raising the citrus or semi-tropi-
cal fruits for which Arizona and California have
become celebrated. Large quantities of forage
and the coarser staples are produced. Various
portions of the state have acquired a more than
local reputation for the production of excellent
vegetables and deciduous fruits. For example,
Rocky Ford, on the Arkansas River, is known
throughout the country for its watermelons, and
especially for cantaloupes. Greeley and vicinity
have set a standard for potatoes, while Grand
Junction has attracted attention by its peaches.
Although equally good results are claimed for
other rural communities, the reputation acquired
by these localities testifies to the excellence at-
tained.
Colorado has 103,645 square miles of land sur-
face, a little less than the combined area of the six
New England states and New York. Its popula-
tion in 1900 was 539,700, or less than a twentieth of
the population of these seven states, but its natural
resources are in many respects incomparably
greater. The state includes a considerable part of
the Rocky Mountain region, noted for the valuable
330 IRRIGATION.
deposits of precious metals and minerals. • It ex-
tends on the east out over a portion of the high
plains which rise from an altitude of about 3000 to
5000 feet or more at the foothills. These broad
plains furnish excellent grazing in ordinary years,
and occasionally a crop of cereals can be produced
by careful cultivation, if favored by the occurrence
of fortunate rains. Dry farming has been at-
tempted at various points along the eastern boun-
dary, and is carried on with a fair degree of success
on the high divide which lies north and northeast
of Colorado Springs. As a rule, however, it may
be stated that irrigation is essential for success
throughout the state.
The plains are traversed by two rivers, which
receive their main supply from the Rocky. Moun-
tains : the South Platte, flowing toward the north-
eastern corner of the state, and the Arkansas,
farther south and flowing easterly. Large canals
and many ditches divert water upon the valley
lands and adjacent plains, so that, during the sum-
mer at least, the beds of both rivers are dry long
before reaching the state line.
The high plains, rising gradually toward the west,
are suddenly intercepted, nearly half of the dis-
tance across the state, by the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains and by the main ranges, which
rise to lofty snow-covered peaks 13,000 feet and
more in height. From the front range westward
the entire state consists of mountains and broad
COLORADO. 331
plateaus with relatively few valleys. Among the
mountains, at elevations of 7000 feet, are a number
of basinlike areas dotted with trees and known as
parks. Here natural grasses abound, and by dis-
tributing water from the small streams over the
surface large quantities of forage can be had.
The streams which flow westward from the
main divide unite finally to form the Grand River
or empty into Green River. These join to make
the Colorado River of the West. The water sup-
ply is large, but the valleys are narrow, and .as a
rule there is more water than is needed for the
agricultural land, so that storage here is of second-
ary importance. The principal problem is to
lift the water to the benches or mesas along the
streams, or to divert it by means of canals heading
in the canyons, or by tunnels cut through inter-
cepting rocky spurs.
In the southern part of the state, at an altitude
of over 7000 feet, is the broad San Luis Valley,
through which flows the Rio Grande on its way
south into New Mexico. In spite of the altitude,
and consequent cool climate, agriculture by irri-
gation is successfully practised for the production
of cereals and for the growing of alfalfa and other
forage plants.
The largest irrigated areas in Colorado are along
the Platte and Arkansas rivers, and here the prin-
cipal problem is that of increasing the summer
supply by a thorough system of water storage.
332 IRRIGATION.
The canals and ditches already built, taking water
to land partly under cultivation, could probably
utilize to advantage all of the water which can be
conserved. The owners of these irrigation works
have been gradually enlarging them, building pri-
vate reservoirs, and adjusting among themselves a
system of apportioning the water, so that the scanty
supply may be divided in accordance with priori-
ties and with various equities.
One of the principal tributaries of the South
Platte is Cache la Poudre River, which supplies the
farms in the vicinity of Greeley, a view of one of
which is shown on PL LI. The summer flow of
this stream has been increased by the diversion
of the waters of Laramie River (p. 1/8), and also
by the building of a number of reservoirs, both in
the mountains and out on the plains. A compli-
cated system of transfers of water has been in-
augurated, by which the claims of one set of men
are temporarily transferred to another, the natu-
ral flow of the stream being traded for an equiv-
alent amount of stored water, and the reverse, so
as to utilize reservoirs which lie at different alti-
tudes and to enable the storage of water which
otherwise could not be economically handled. Out
of these apparent complications there is being
gradually evolved a system of local water control,
embracing the entire stream, and tending to do
away with the rigid observance of priorities of right
in favor of the largest and best use of the water.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LI.
•••
COLORADO. 333
The gradual evolution and adjustment of water
rights on the Cache la Poudre and along the Ar-
kansas is to a certain extent typical of the prog-
ress in other localities, where some of the lower
canals have prior rights over those higher up-
stream. The latter are located in such a position
that they can more readily take the water as it
comes from the mountains, and it has been exceed-
ingly difficult to keep the head gates of these up-
per canals closed in times of scarcity in order to
force down the proper amount to ditches below.
To assist in adjusting the various difficulties, asso-
ciations have been formed and various agreements
entered into. One of the chief obstacles to full
development of the water resources lies in the fact
that water storage has been begun on the head
waters, not for the benefit of all concerned, but for
one or two canals, thus introducing irritating com-
plications, and uncertainty as to which portion of
the water is stored and which is the natural flow.
The importance of public ownership and control
of natural reservoir sites has been mentioned on
page 177.
IDAHO.
This state has a land area of 84,290 square
miles, being slightly larger than the state of Kan-
sas and a third greater than the whole of New Eng-
land. The population in 1890 was 161,772, thus
averaging about two to the square mile, as com-
pared with a density of from 20 to 50 persons to
334 IRRIGATION.
the square mile in the Eastern states. The greater
part of this population is in the valleys along
Boise, Payette, and Weiser rivers and on the
head waters of Snake River, and also in the mining
towns scattered through the mountains.
The form of Idaho is peculiar. Toward the
north is a narrow prolongation, including the
mountainous area between the states of Mon-
tana and Washington. The broad southern end
includes the greater part of the valley of Snake
River and the tributary country. This is mainly
a broad, lava-covered plain, dry, dusty, and barren,
except for a dense growth of sage brush and
similar woody shrubs. The lava frequently ap-
pears on the surface, the rough, angular blocks
giving a forbidding appearance to the landscape.
A thin soil, often sandy, covers some of the lava,
but where watered this, like most of the soil of
the arid regions, has been found to be highly pro-
ductive.
The head waters of Snake River are in the vicin-
ity of the Yellowstone National Park. They flow
in a general southwesterly course, out upon the
lava-covered plains, bringing vast quantities of
sand and gravel. Over the deposits thus formed
the streams meander, rendering it possible to easily
divert the water for agricultural purposes.
Soon after leaving the mountains Snake River
begins to cut into the rocky surface, and with suc-
cessive rapids and falls, as shown on PI. LI I, A,
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LI I.
A. TWIN FALLS. SNAKE RIVER, IDAHO.
B- CONSTRUCTING A CANAL BY MEANS OF A GRADER.
IDAHO. 335
it works its way downward until it flows at a
depth of 1000 to 2000 feet or more beneath the
general level. Continuing in deep canyons, the
river crosses the southern end of Idaho and then
swings toward the north, the canyon walls giving
place to broad, undulating valleys where the Boise,
Payette, and Weiser rivers enter from Idaho and
the Owyhee and Malheur rivers come in from
Oregon. Here agriculture has been developed to
a larger extent than elsewhere in the state. Leav-
ing this open land, the river keeps northward, hav-
ing cut for itself deep, gloomy canyons separating
the Blue Mountains of Oregon from the charac-
teristically named Seven Devils region of Idaho.
North of the Snake River plain are the Salmon
River and other rugged mountains of the central
portion of the state. From these a number of
streams flow southerly toward Snake River, their
waters disappearing in the pervious lava, and
probably reappearing as springs in Snake River
Canyon. These springs are almost innumerable
and some of them have a volume of several hun-
dred cubic feet per second. Within the moun-
tains the valleys are narrow, and agriculture
is practised to a limited extent, mainly in the
vicinity of the mining camps of this rich mineral
region.
In the eastern end of the state, on the head waters
of Snake River, where the altitude ranges from
4000 to 5000 feet, the settlers, mostly Mormons,
336 IRRIGATION.
have brought large tracts of land under cultivation.
The altitude here is such that greatest success is
had with alfalfa and similar forage crops and
with small grain. Fruits are being raised only to
a limited extent. Farther down the river, and
especially in the western part of the state, in the
vicinity of Boise, the capital city, and extending
out along Snake River, fruits are of consider-
able importance, orchards of large size being de-
voted to the production of prunes, plums, apples,
and pears, these being in addition to the ordinary
farm crops. The altitude here is from 2000 to
3000 feet, and the almost continuous sunshine of
summer is highly favorable to the production of
fine fruits. Large and expensive irrigation works
have been built below Boise, one of these being
illustrated in PL LIII.
The flow of Snake River near the central por-
tion of its course in the state averages in summer
about 5000 second-feet, and ranges from a low-
water flow of a little less than 2000 second-feet
to ordinary floods of 50,000 second-feet. This
volume of water, tumbling over cliffs such as those
at Twin Falls, shown on PL LI I, A, and Sho-
shone Falls, and shooting down the long rapids,
not only adds to the picturesque attractions of the
country, but at once suggests possibilities of the
development of enormous water-power. Part of
this has been made of use at American Falls near
Pocatello, and at a point southwesterly from Boise.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LI 1 1.
WOODEN PIPE LINE ON PHYLLIS CANAL, IDAHO.
WATER POWER. 337
By devoting this power to its full capacity at
points where it can be utilized without interference
with irrigation, it will be possible to create many
industries and to pump water to elevations which
cannot be covered by gravity canals. It is of the
utmost importance, however, to the future develop-
ment of the state that these power plants be located
above the irrigable areas and not below. It has
been found by recent observations that there will
not be more than enough water passing American
Falls under ordinary conditions to irrigate the
lands between it and Twin Falls or Shoshone
Falls. The development of power at these latter
places, although apparently so attractive, would in
reality be an injury to the state, if by so doing it
should be necessary to force water to flow down to
these falls at times when it is needed for irrigation.
The notable developments in this part of the
state, brought about under the terms of the so-called
Carey Act above Twin Falls, and under the National
Reclamation Act at the Minidoka project (see
p. 411), have reached an extent such that the ordi-
nary low-water flow of Snake River must be sup-
plemented by storage at the head waters, principally
in Jacksons Lake in Wyoming. Even before these
large tracts were brought under irrigation there
was during the late summer a shortage of water
in ditches and canals heading in Snake River and
its tributaries in eastern Idaho, the main river being
dry at times in the vicinity of Blackfoot.
338 IRRIGATION.
The principal town in the northern part of the
state is Lewiston, situated at the point where
Clear water River enters Snake River. Here the
valleys are very narrow, as shown on PI. LIV,
and are bounded in places by benches upon which
some water can be taken from tributary streams,
or to which a small quantity may be lifted by
pumping. Fruits are successfully raised in these
narrow valleys and on the higher lands wherever
water can be had. Dry farming is practised on
the rolling uplands (PL LVI), wheat being the
principal crop.
MONTANA.
Montana is the third state in area, being ex-
ceeded in size only by Texas and California. Its
land surface of 145,310 square miles is nearly as
great as that of New England, New York, and
Pennsylvania combined. The population in 1900
was 243,329, or less than two per square mile.
This state is the most northerly of those lying
wholly within the arid region. In spite of the
general lack of moisture, there are a few areas
among the mountains where crops have been
raised by dry farming, but as a rule irrigation is
essential to successful agriculture.
The Great Plains, which extend across Kansas
and Nebraska and into eastern Colorado, sweep
northerly and westerly around the Black Hills and
Bighorn Mountains. Contrary to popular concep-
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LIV.
CANYON OF SNAKE RIVER ABOVE LEWISTON, IDAHO.
MONTANA. 339
tions, the altitude descends toward the north, the
country being lower in northern Montana than in
eastern Colorado. This fact is emphasized because
of the commonly expressed opinion that water
might be diverted from Missouri River and car-
ried out southerly along the upper edge of the
Great Plains, furnishing an abundant supply for
this vast area. It is, however, impracticable to
divert the Missouri River to cover any consider-
able portion of these dry lands.
Montana, like Colorado, extends from the Great
Plains westerly across the Continental Divide,
fully two-thirds of the state consisting of rolling
lands and plateaus broken by occasional mountain
masses. Here the water supply is scanty, although
this part of the state is traversed by two large riv-
ers — on the south by the Yellowstone, and on the
north by the Missouri, these uniting at the east-
ern border. The western third of the state is
mountainous and comparatively well-watered, these
high mountain masses furnishing perennial streams,
necessary to the utilization of the low-lying valleys
with fertile soil and genial climate. The great
problems of the development of Montana relate
to the possibilities of obtaining water for the vast
extent of great plains away from the mountains.
The ease with which water could be brought
upon land and the presence of a market at the
mines within the mountains have caused western
Montana to be the most thickly populated and
340 IRRIGATION.
well-cultivated part of the state, while the great
eastern plain or prairie region, with its almost
boundless extent of rich soil and its great rivers,
the Missouri and Yellowstone, is almost unsettled.
The most important agricultural area is in Gal-
latin Valley, of which Bozeman is the principal
town. Here alfalfa and cereals are raised, barley
especially being of superior excellence and value.
East of this, and along the Yellowstone River, in
the vicinity of Billings and other towns, are numer-
ous areas under cultivation. Northerly from these
localities and extending across the state are various
points where irrigation has been introduced, espe-
cially in connection with stock raising, water being
taken principally from the smaller streams which
can be readily controlled.
Along Milk River, which flows from the north-
west into Missouri River, settlement has pro-
gressed rapidly and irrigation has been attempted,
but the supply of water is far below the demands.
To remedy this condition, surveys have been made
to ascertain the practicability of diverting the water
from Saint Mary River, which receives the drainage
of a part of the snow-clad Rocky Mountains, and
flows northerly into Canada, being separated from
Milk River by low gravel ridges of glacial origin.
It has been found possible to bring a large canal
through these ridges, restoring to its eastern course
the water which, until prevented by glacial deposits,
presumably flowed easterly across the plains.
MONTANA. 341
Mining is the principal industry of the state, this
being confined to the mountains in the western
end. Next to this in importance is stock raising ;
the greater part of the state is devoted to this
business, the great herds of cattle fattening on the
open public land for the Eastern market. Irriga-
tion has been carried on largely as an adjunct to
the cattle business, in order to furnish hay for the
winter feed. Proper control of the free grazing is
one of the great problems now presented.
The importance of irrigation is steadily increas-
ing as settlers push in, and the open ranges are
being more and more crowded with cattle, horses,
and sheep. The resulting overgrazing necessitates
occasional feeding, especially in winter, and this in
turn calls for an increase of irrigated area, in order
that hay and particularly alfalfa may be produced.
The necessity of winter feeding and the greater
labor thus involved tend to reduce the large herds,
as noted on p. 40, and to increase the number of
small ranches, whose owners can give personal at-
tention to their cattle grazing on the surrounding
lands.
NEVADA.
Nevada, although of great extent, enjoys the
unenviable reputation of being, in population, the
smallest state in the Union, and of having decreased
rapidly in this respect. The number of persons in
1890, about 45,000, has in ten years diminished to
a little over 42,000, there being fewer people than
342 IRRIGATION.
in Alaska or in any of the seven territories now
under the control of the United States. The
decrease in population has resulted mainly from
the lessened output of the mines and neglect to
make use of the agricultural possibilities.
The total land surface of the state is 109,740
square miles, almost exactly that of Italy, which
has a population 750 times as great. In 1900
there were irrigated 510,000 acres, most of this
being devoted to raising hay. A considerable
portion of this half-million acres is made up of
lands partly overflowed by the Humboldt and
other rivers, the flooding being assisted in a rela-
tively small degree by ditches and by dams placed
in the stream. In point of cost and value, such
irrigation is by no means comparable to that
practised in many other states, being little more
than an attempt at assisting nature in spreading
water over the surface during spring floods.
The state lies almost wholly within the Great
Basin, a region from which no streams escape to
the sea. The rivers, flowing from lofty mountains,
continue out upon broad valleys, and their waters
are finally lost in extensive marshes or open lakes,
the evaporation from the surface balancing the
inflow. In former geologic ages, when the rain-
fall was presumably greater, these valleys were
occupied by large bodies of fresh water, which
discharged probably toward the north, increasing
the flow of Columbia River. The Great Basin
NEVADA. 343
extends easterly beyond the boundaries of Nevada
and includes a large part of the state of Utah.
On the western border of the state are the high
mountains, the Sierra Nevada, which are almost
wholly within the state of California, the boundary
line being drawn along the eastern slope below
the main summits. These mountains fend off the
moisture coming from the Pacific Ocean, and as
a result the state of Nevada is as a whole the
driest of all the arid states. High mountain masses
irregularly distributed over the Great Basin break
up the surface, and from these flow small streams,
the larger uniting to form the Humboldt River,
which crosses the northern end of the state from
east to west. The other important rivers are the
Truckee, Carson, and Walker, which flow westerly
from the Sierra Nevada.
Because of the extreme dryness of the country,
the sections numbered 16 and 36, which in other
states were devoted to educational purposes, have
been in the case of Nevada left in the hands of
the government, and in their stead a grant of
2,000,000 acres of public land has been made to
the state. Most of this has been selected by cattle
companies, lands being chosen in such a way as
to include nearly all of the springs and smaller
sources of water. Thus the cattlemen have been
enabled to control practically the entire agricultural
area through the ownership of the water, and settle-
ment has been retarded.
344 IRRIGATION.
The problem of transportation has also been one
of fundamental importance to Nevada. There is
only one main line of railroad, the Central Pacific,
controlled by the Southern Pacific Company. The
managers of this line have in the past apparently
regarded the space between Utah and California
as a great unavoidable gap to be bridged, and the
development of population in this space has been
practically accidental as far as the railroad is con-
cerned. Few, if any, efforts have been made to
facilitate settlement, and local traffic rates have
been almost prohibitory. Thus it results that the
natural aridity, preventing dry farming, the aggres-
sions of the cattlemen, making settlement almost
perilous, and the unfavorable attitude of the rail-
road, adding to the cost of home building, have
deterred settlers and left the state to consist mainly
of the remnants of a mining population.
The Truckee, Carson, and Walker rivers, flow-
ing from the Sierra Nevada in California easterly
into the valleys of Nevada, furnish by far the
greater part of the water supply for the state. In
the relatively small area along these rivers, adja-
cent to the California boundary, are the principal
towns and most of the people. Scattered along
Humboldt River, crossing the northern end of the
state, are a number of small settlements, a few
outlying mining camps being found farther south.
Stock ranches for headquarters and supply places
for the sheep and cattlemen are located at remote
NEVADA. 345
points near springs, or at the mouths of canyons
from which water issues upon valley land. Here
small areas are irrigated, mainly for winter forage.
The development of the state will be possible by
constructing reservoirs on the tributaries of Hum-
boldt River, and even on the main stream, and par-
ticularly on the head waters of the rivers flowing
from California. Interstate problems are involved
in the latter undertaking, but surveys have demon-
strated that works can be built at feasible cost to
reclaim many thousand acres, making possible
homestead settlement on the lands now valueless.
The reservoir which has attracted the greatest
amount of public attention is Lake Tahoe, at the
head of Truckee River, and it has been shown that
by holding its waters back by means of a suitable
dam, water can be retained for the irrigation of
thousands of acres.
In addition to the reservoir sites occupied in
part by lakes and to which public attention has
been especially drawn, there are broad valleys in
which artesian water can possibly be had, and also
many localities scattered through the mountains
suitable for holding water. These are mainly
small valleys, in some cases formerly occupied by
glaciers, and later by lakes, which in course of
time have cut an outlet through the lower rims.
A comparatively small expenditure of labor and
capital will close the outlets, and by this means
bodies of water of considerable size can be held.
346 IRRIGATION.
The rain and snow fall on these high mountains
aggregates from 30 to 40 inches or more annually,
this being sufficient to replenish the reservoirs if
constructed.
NEW MEXICO.
New Mexico, although well within the arid
region, presents many contrasts to Nevada. This
results largely from the difference in population,
and the way in which lands have been held and
agriculture has been practised. The population of
the state consists largely of Mexicans, and the cul-
tivation of the soil is almost wholly in their hands.
The territorial form of government still prevails,
although the population, 195,310 in 1900, surpasses
that of the states of Delaware, Idaho, Nevada, and
Wyoming. The territory is three times the size of
Ohio and has less than a twentieth of the popula-
tion.
The oldest irrigation works in the United States
are in this territory, having been built by the
Pueblo Indians or their Mexican neighbors. The
average size of an irrigated farm is small, the
lands under ditch having been subdivided among
the sons of the family instead of additional areas
being brought under cultivation. The farmers,
especially those of mixed Spanish and Indian de-
scent, have followed the customs of their fathers,
and show little energy or skill. The lands are
tilled in a most laborious fashion, largely by hand,
and the returns are small.
NEW MEXICO. 347
The eastern part of the territory has been, until
recent times, the paradise of cattlemen and of out-
laws, many of whom have taken temporary service
in the retinue of one or another of the great cattle
kings, and have alternated the business of " round-
ing up " cattle with that of keeping out settlers
or evading the officers of the law. Within recent
times, however, much of the lawlessness has been
broken up, particularly since the introduction of
irrigation along Pecos River, the advent of farmers,
and the extension of railroads from the East and
the South.
The Rio Grande, rising in southern Colorado,
enters the territory from the north through deep
canyons. These widen in places, allowing room
for bottom lands, and again the walls die down,
forming low mesas. The proportion of open land
increases toward the south, and here are the prin-
cipal towns and agricultural communities. The
river itself tends to spread out over the bottom
lands, and the greater part of its water gradually
disappears by evaporation or by diversion into
ditches, so that in the lower part of its course,
above El Paso, Texas, the stream channel is fre-
quently dry. There are very few large canals, but
a great number of small community ditches supply
lands held by the Indians and Mexicans. The
origin of these ditches is lost even in local tradi-
tion, and it is probable that many of them were
in use before the advent of white men. The
348 IRRIGATION.
waters of the river are extremely muddy, especially
after spring rains, and the sediment, carried in sus-
pension, fills the ditches, necessitating frequent
cleaning, especially of those having slight grade.
The development of the resources of New Mexico
rests largely upon the control of the Rio Grande.
On the head waters of this stream, in Colorado, are
a number of large canals, the capacity of these
being sufficient to take all of the river at that
point. The seepage and inflow from small streams
maintain the river at a moderate volume in northern
New Mexico, but practically no water penetrates to
the southern end of the territory during the irriga-
tion season. There are a number of open valleys
along the course of the Rio Grande and on its
principal tributaries, where by building large dams
great quantities of water can be held. Several of
these localities have been surveyed.
The principal storage project is that above
El Paso, where it has been proposed to construct
a great international dam to regulate the flow of
the Rio Grande where it forms the boundary
between the state of Texas and the republic of
Mexico. The periodical drying of the river and
the shifting which takes place during occasional
floods make the boundary a matter of great un-
certainty, and result in continual irritation between
the authorities on both sides.
There are few notable irrigation works along the
Rio Grande, the ditches for the most part being
NEW MEXICO. 349
small and having temporary dams of brush and
stone. These are swept away in time of flood and
must be replaced after the spring freshets. The
ditches do not, as a rule, extend beyond the lower
land, and the terraces or mesas along the stream,
usually having better soil, are not as yet cultivated.
A considerable portion of the bottom land is alka-
line, and many small farms have been abandoned and
even towns deserted because of the accumulation
of earthy salts. Drainage is in many localities
almost as necessary as irrigation.
The typical Mexican farms consist of long, nar-
row strips extending from the foothills to the river
and crossed by a ditch. The peculiar shape of
these farms is due to the fact that, in dividing the
inheritance, it is customary to give each heir an
equal amount of the hill land and the frontage on
the ditch and river ; the result is that these tracts
may be from 25 to 300 yards in width on the stream
and a thousand or more yards long, extending up
the slope to the ditch or beyond it to the hills.
This causes much inconvenience in cultivating, and
is accompanied by lack of economy in irrigating.
The ditches, as a rule, are owned in common by
the farmers of each community, and one of the
irrigators is annually elected superintendent, or
majordomo. His business is to attend to all nec-
essary repairs, regulate the distribution of water,
largely according to his own judgment and experi-
ence, and in case of extensive work call upon all
350 IRRIGATION.
of the farmers to contribute each his share of
labor.
The largest irrigation system is that on Pecos
River, in the southeastern part of the state, sup-
plying land in the vicinity of Carlsbad, formerly
known as Eddy. Here dams have been built
across Pecos River, forming reservoirs, the largest
of which is known as Lake McMillan. From the
latter a canal extends along the river, branching
to cover lands on both sides of the stream.
OREGON.
The western portion of Oregon, bordering on
the Pacific Ocean, is humid. The belt of well-
watered land extends easterly to the Cascade
Range, which forms a barrier to the progress of
the moist winds on their journey inland. About
two-thirds of the state is on the eastern or dry side
of the mountains, and in this portion irrigation is
necessary for most crops, although wheat, barley,
and rye are successfully cultivated by dry farming
on the uplands around the Blue Mountains and
near the Columbia River.
The country east of the Cascade Mountains may
be pictured as a series of broad plains and mesas,
covered with lava of various ages, from that out-
poured recently to the ancient flows whose surface
has largely changed into soil. This supports a
dense growth of sage brush, and also juniper near
the mountains, these being intermingled with for-
OREGON. 351
age plants. The vegetation becomes sparse out
on the broad valleys, but nearly everywhere fur-
nishes good grazing.
The erupted material forming the plains is simi-
lar in many respects to the vast sheets of lava or
basalt covering the valleys of southern Idaho.
These lavas occur around the Blue Mountains, and
are apparently continuous from southern Idaho to
the Great Bend country of the Columbia in cen-
tral Washington. Volcanic cones rise from these
plains, and the general level is interrupted in
places by mountain masses whose lower portions
have apparently been buried by the outpouring of
fluid rocks. The altitude of this land is from 3000
to 4000 feet, the mountains rising to 8000 feet or
over. The most important of these are the Blue
Mountains, in the northeastern part of the state,
which consist largely of extremely steep, rugged
peaks, snow-capped for a considerable part of
the year. The foothills of these mountains, at
altitudes of from 5000 to 7000 feet and over, are
covered with timber, much of it being pine of con-
siderable value. From these highlands come the
streams important in irrigation development.
Water storage is highly essential for the growth
of agriculture in central Oregon. The streams are
small and intermittent in character. Reservoir
sites are known to exist on them, but none have
been surveyed. Crooked River, which receives
its supply from the Blue Mountains, is typical. It
352 IRRIGATION.
has spring floods, which rapidly subside toward
summer, until the channel of the stream is nearly
dry. By building dams at a number of localities
along its course it is probable that the summer
flow can be increased to an extent sufficient to
irrigate many thousand acres.
Similar to this is Silvies River, which flows out
upon the northern edge of the Harney plain or
desert. Where this stream leaves the canyon it
has built a broad delta, through which the water
meanders in a number of channels. Much of the
ground is overflowed during the spring flood, and
considerable areas, originally marshy, have been
utilized as hay lands by slightly regulating the
flow of the stream and by annually cutting the
native grasses and weeds. The quality and quan-
tity of these are greatly improved by this regular
treatment. The area of valuable hay land has
been increased by check dams placed in the di-
verging channels, causing the floods to spread on
the low lands. The cultivation of more valuable
crops can be made feasible by enlarging the canals
from Silvies River, and especially by insuring
ample water for summer through the construction
of storage works. The same thing is true to a
greater or less degree of the various tributaries of
Malheur River and other streams issuing from the
Blue Mountains.
Where a sufficient supply cannot be had from
surface streams, it may be practicable to obtain
OREGON. 353
water from underground, particularly from artesian
wells sunk in the broad desert valleys. The struc-
ture of some of these is known to be favorable to
the accumulation of water, and it is highly impor-
tant to make a thorough geologic examination, if
necessary by the drilling of one or two wells of
such depth as to penetrate the recent deposits and
definitely determine whether flowing water can be
had. By so doing maps can be prepared showing
the depth to the water-bearing horizon and the
probable height to which the water will ris^.
This is true of the broad valleys of central Wash-
ington, as well as of the Harney and Malheur val-
leys of Oregon. The soil of these is very fertile,
and in many places the forage plants furnish good
grazing ; but the distance from springs or streams
is so great that cattle cannot graze except during
the winter season, when pools of water are occa-
sionally formed. If a supply could be had from
deep wells, the cattle and sheep industry would be
greatly benefited and it is possible that considera-
ble areas might be irrigated. With improved
transportation facilities there will be opportunities
for making many farms on the vacant land of
central Oregon.
UTAH.
This state, occupying the central portion of the
arid region, has led in the development of irriga-
tion by associations of farmers tilling small areas.
2 A
354 IRRIGATION.
The average size of an irrigated farm is less than
in any other part of the country, and consequently
the number of persons supported per acre is great-
est. This has been due to the peculiar system of
organization growing out of Mormon practices.
The excellent results attained demonstrate the
practicability of industrious pioneers supporting
themselves and attaining prosperous homes on
small tracts.
The land surface of the state has an area of
82,190 square miles — over ten times the size of
Massachusetts — and the population in 1900 was
276,749, or one-tenth that of the latter state. The
principal part of the population is on the narrow
strip of land at the foot of the mountains east of
Great Salt Lake and of the smaller body of fresh
water, Utah Lake. Agriculture is dependent upon
irrigation, except in the case of wheat and barley,
which are raised by dry farming on some of the
higher bench lands. In localities where snow
covers the ground, it has been found possible, by
summer fallowing and by planting hardy varieties
of cereals in the fall, to obtain a good crop ; and
with skill gained by experience the area thus
planted is being extended. For alfalfa and other
forage plants, and for general farm crops, as well
as for orchards, irrigation is essential.
The water supply of the state is relatively well
distributed in a number of creeks and small rivers
issuing from the Wasatch Range. These moun-
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LV.
TUNNEL OF BEAR RIVER CANAL, UTAH.
UTAH. 355
tains rise abruptly from broad valleys, and receive
upon the summits a considerable amount of rain
and snow. The streams have cut deep canyons,
and as they issue upon the plains their waters are
diverted by many canals and ditches. Nearly all
of these have been built by associations of farmers
living in small communities on the bench land near
the mouths of the canyons. There are very few
large structures built by capital obtained outside
the state, and, so far as can be ascertained, all
investments of this character have been financially
unsuccessful. On the other hand, the farmers,
uniting in associations and furnishing their own
labor and teams, have built works, some of them
of considerable magnitude, and through the use of
these have increased the value of their property to
such an extent as to make the investment highly
remunerative. It is to be noted, however, that it is
the owner and tiller of the soil who has become
prosperous, and not the owner of the irrigating
system. One of the largest works in the state is
the Bear River Canal, a portion of which is shown
on PL LV.
Growing out of the complete church organiza-
tion of the people have come methods of allotting
and distributing water which have proved sufficient
for most localities. Controversies occasionally
arise, but these are usually settled by what amounts
to a majority vote of those concerned. There is
an attempt made to divide water by priority of
356 IRRIGATION.
time at which it was put to beneficial use, but the
strict regard to priorities has often been set aside
in favor of a more equitable distribution during
times of scarcity. In other words, priorities have
been disregarded in favor of needs of men owning
orchards which would be destroyed if water could
not be had, temporarily at least. There is also put
in practice a grouping of rights as described on
P- 293-
The Bear, Ogden, and Weber rivers are the prin-
cipal streams of the western part of the state, and
receive a considerable part of the drainage of the
Wasatch Mountains. The most notable river,
however, is the Jordan, which flows into Great
Salt Lake from the south, being the outlet of Utah
Lake. The latter body of water lies at an eleva-
tion considerably above Great Salt Lake, so much
so that its waters are taken out by canals covering
the valley lands and extending to the city of Salt
Lake.
Utah Lake receives from the east a number of
large streams, the most important of which is
Provo River. The ordinary flow of this and other
streams is fully utilized during the summer, and
extension of irrigation is dependent upon water
storage, for which there are a number of favorable
sites in the mountains. One of the most important
developments for the state is the complete regula-
tion of these head-water streams by the construc-
tion of impounding dams and the control of Utah
UTAH. 357
Lake, by which its waters may he drained down to
a small extent and the lake made available to the
greatest possible capacity for lands in Salt Lake
Valley.
At about the centre of the state is Sevier River,
which flows from the high plateaus and mountains
of the southern part of the state northerly toward
Utah Lake, but, before reaching it, turns abruptly
to the west, its waters finally disappearing in a
marsh or sink, known as Sevier Lake. A number
of important towns and farming communities are
located in the valleys along this river, and the
water is as fully used as can be without storage.
Excellent opportunities exist for conserving water,
and on some of the tributary streams small reser-
voirs have already been built by the farmers.
The eastern side of the state is drained by Colo-
rado River and its tributaries, the largest of which
is the Green. Near the head waters these streams
are used to a small extent on the lands of the ele-
vated plateaus and of the small valleys intersecting
them, but the general character of this drainage is
typified by the Colorado, which flows in a deep,
narrow canyon without any bottom land. The
greater part of the water is thus lost to agriculture,
although it may be of industrial value in the future
as a source of power. If any of it is to be used
for irrigation, this can be accomplished only by
storage and diversion near the head waters, before
the streams have cut down into the solid rocks.
358 IRRIGATION.
This river escapes to the Pacific Ocean through
the Gulf of California, but, with the exception of
this drainage area, the state of Utah lies wholly
within the Great Basin.
The western side of Utah consists of broad, arid
valleys interrupted by sharp mountain ranges, and
has the desert aspect which characterizes the Great
Basin. There is some timber upon the mountains,
and also grazing, but the valleys are, for the most
part, barren, supporting only a growth of sage
brush and similar plants. The difficulty of obtain-
ing water, even for cattle, has prevented the settle-
ment of this country, although prospectors and
miners have made temporary homes and camps,
some of them important. Artesian waters are
found in many parts of the state, especially in
the vicinity of Utah Lake and Great Salt Lake.
It is possible that deep wells can be successfully
sunk in some of the desert valleys.
WASHINGTON.
The western portion of the state of Washington,
especially in the region of Puget Sound, is noted
for its fogs and heavy rainfall. East of the Cas-
cade Range, however, as in Oregon, the country
is extremely dry, except near the Canadian bor-
der and among the foothills adjacent to northern
Idaho. Throughout eastern Washington, on the
rolling uplands, and southerly across Columbia
River and around the flank of the Blue Mountains,
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LVI.
WASHINGTON. 359
is a country which, though possessing a distinctly
arid climate, has been found to be one of the best-
known areas for raising wheat. The soil, resulting
from the decay of basalts and lavas, is extremely
rich, and, although almost ashy in texture, has the
peculiar property of retaining and transmitting to
the plants a sufficient amount of water to insure
luxuriant growth. Broad wheat fields, shown on PL
LVI, extend in every direction as far as the eye
can reach, covering a land which has been con-
sidered worthless except for grazing. The water
supply is very scanty, barely sufficient for domestic
purposes. The rivers, like the Columbia and its
principal tributaries, flow in deep, narrow can-
yons, and although the volume of water is large, it
is impracticable to bring any of it to the tops of the
adjoining cliffs upon which the farms are located.
In the valleys immediately east of the Cascade
Mountains irrigation is practised, especially along
Yakima River, which receives the waters of the
melting snows on high mountains. It flows through '
a number of valleys in succession, and many small
ditches divert water, also a few large canals, the
most important of which is known as the Sunnyside
Canal (PI. LVII, A), irrigating land below Yakima.
The principal crop produced, besides alfalfa and
fruits, is hops, the climate being found peculiarly
favorable for these.
Columbia River, which flows through the state
from Canada, and Snake River, its principal tribu-
360 IRRIGATION.
tary, are in deep, narrow canyons through the
greater part of their courses. Along their banks
are many wheels designed to lift water by means
of buckets placed upon the rim, as shown on PL
XLI. These make possible the cultivation of small
fruit farms on the narrow strip of land between the
river and the foot of the cliffs. These little farms,
being sheltered from the wind, and receiving sun-
shine and warmth, produce fruit of high quality,
such as peaches, pears, prunes, and other varieties
of plums. These are transported, mainly by water,
to the local markets at Portland and elsewhere.
The interior of Washington is in many respects
similar to that of Oregon, particularly in what is
known as the Great Bend country. Here the
streams are small, not having a mountainous catch-
ment area ; but it is believed that water conserva-
tion is practicable on some of the coulees, as well
as on the Palouse River, which flows from the
highlands in the eastern part of the state, and on
the Pataha, Wallawalla, and similar rivers coming
from the Blue Mountains, making possible the
reclamation of extensive areas of vacant land.
Artesian wells have been sunk in some of the val-
leys, particularly near Pullman, on the eastern side
of the state, and in the Moxee Valley, east of Yak-
ima River. Water-bearing gravels have been found
beneath or interbedded with the lava flows. An
ideal section of these artesian conditions is given
in Fig. 93, prepared by Professor Israel C. Russell.
WASHINGTON.
361
The mountains in the background are intended
to represent the far side of a lava-floored valley.
Sands and gravels derived from the mountains
have been washed into the valley, and from time
to time flows of lava have taken place. A well
HORIZONTAL SCALE
a MILES
VERTICAL SCALE
ioob
2000 FEET
FIG. 94. — Ideal section of the border of the Columbia River lava ad-
jacent to the mountains.
drilled through these lava sheets, until a porous
water-charged bed is reached, will yield a surface
flow, provided the mouth of the well is below the
exposed portion of the pervious layer, and also
provided that there is an unbroken impervious bed
both above and below it, as described on page 248.
WYOMING.
This state, because of its high altitude, cool
climate, and broad, almost desert plains, is and
probably always will be devoted mainly to the
grazing industry. Mining is of considerable im-
portance, but agriculture is relatively undeveloped.
362 IRRIGATION.
The altitude of Cheyenne, the capital city, is a lit-
tle over 6000 feet. This is located on the edge
of tjie high plains, near the foot of the Laramie
Hills. From here the plains continue north-
ward between the Black Hills on the eastern edge
of the state and the Bighorn Mountains near the
centre of the northern part. There is a gradual
decline in altitude toward the north) the town of
Sheridan having an altitude of about 3700 feet.
Here agriculture by irrigation has been most
largely developed. In the Bighorn basin, west of
the mountains, the altitude is also relatively low,
5000 feet or less, and the water supply large, so
that opportunity for the increase of farms is good.
The area of the land surface of the state is
97>575 square miles, or 62,448,000 acres. The
population in 1900 was only 92,531, being a little
less than one per square mile. The average size
of the irrigated holdings is large, since most of
these consist of hay farms operated in connection
with cattle ranches. The cost of water is corre-
spondingly small, as developments have consisted
mainly of ditches for bringing water out upon
meadows. The water supply of the state, for an
arid region, is not only relatively large, but is well
distributed, the principal rivers being the North
Platte and its tributary, Sweetwater River, receiv-
ing the drainage of the southeastern part of the
state, Powder River, on the east side of the Big-
horn Mountains, and the Bighorn, on the west side
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LVII.
A. SUNNYSIDE CANAL. WASHINGTON.
B- FRUIT ORCHARD, YAKIMA VALLEY, WASHINGTON.
WYOMING. 363
of the same range, also Green River in the south-
west corner. Some of these are of such size that
there is little probability that the waters will ever
be seriously diminished by irrigation ; but on the
east side of the Bighorn Range, in the vicinity of
Buffalo and Sheridan, there is already demand for
water storage.
One of the most important irrigation systems of
the state is that in the vicinity of Wheatland, north
of Cheyenne. Water is obtained by a tunnel through
the Laramie Range, being brought from Laramie
River to the east front of these mountains, where
it is distributed by a number of canals. The ordi-
nary flow of the river is increased by a storage
reservoir built above the mouth of the tunnel, and
the available supply is further regulated by storage
works in the vicinity of the irrigated land.
CHAPTER XII.
STATES OF THE SEMIARID REGION.
THE location of the semiarid region has been
shown in Fig. 2 (page 14), and a definition has
been given of the location of the area. There are
also in western Oregon and Washington narrow
belts which maybe designated semiarid; but the
transition between arid and humid conditions in
those states is so quickly made that these regions
are not generally recognized.
There has been no careful distinction made be-
tween the use of the words "semiarid" and " sub-
humid," and they are considered as practically
synonymous, since both are relative, the term
"semiarid" implying a little drier condition than
"subhumid." As shown on the map (Fig. 2), the
semiarid region extends in a broad belt across the
United States, in a general northerly and southerly
direction, and is included mainly within the states
of North Dakota and South Dakota, Nebraska,
Kansas, Texas, and the Territory of Oklahoma.
FLUCTUATIONS IN WATER SUPPLY.
The broad belt east of the arid region and form-
ing the debatable ground between it and the humid
364
SEMIARID STATES. 365
lands of the Mississippi Valley presents conditions
so nearly uniform that it may be considered as a
geographic unit. No definite boundaries can be
assigned, because of the fact that for a number of
years in succession summer rains may be above
the average and the vegetation will be luxuriant,
so that in driving across this land it seems to be
a perfect flower garden and a paradise for cattle ;
while again the rainfall may be deficient year after
year, vegetation become parched and almost dis-
appear, and the traveller will apply to it the old
term, the " Great American Desert." Thus it has
happened that one or another of the early pioneers
has spoken in glowing terms of the fertility and
beauty of these high plains, and others with equal
sincerity have described the horrors of the long,
thirsty drives across the sterile wastes.
The alternations in the amount of moisture are
best marked by small, shallow lakes which some-
times dot the plains, especially toward the north.
After a cycle of wet years these are found scat-
tered here and there ; but they disappear again,
and leave no trace of their existence except by
muddy flats or stretches of hard-baked adobe.
Another way of describing the conditions is to
say that the arid conditions at times creep down
the slopes of the high plains and extend far east-
ward, and again retreat to the base of the Rocky
Mountains, swinging backward and forward with-
out any known rule or regularity. As the soil is
366 IRRIGATION.
very fertile, there is constant temptation for the
settler to push westward from the humid East dur-
ing seasons of abundant rainfall, with the result
that after he has begun to make a home he is over-
taken by the reverse swing of climatic conditions,
and suffers from successive droughts. These usu-
ally force him to abandon his farm and improve-
ments, through continual loss of crops.
This peculiar condition of rich soil and fickle
rainfall is common to all regions of the globe
where great famines have occurred. The ex-
treme productiveness of the soil after a heavy rain
encourages an extension of agriculture and a gen-
eral lack of thrift, so that often when the crops do
fail population has increased rapidly and little pro-
vision has been made for meeting continued losses.
In the popular mind nearly every probable and im-
probable cause has been assigned for this change
of climatic conditions, and with limited range of
observation it has sometimes been assumed that
the rainfall is continuously increasing or diminish-
ing. By selecting periods of five or even ten years
it has been possible to support either theory.
It has been for the interest of speculators in
land and of transportation companies to adopt the
theory of gradual increase of available moisture
on the Great Plains, and the results attained from
about 1880 to 1886 seemed to support the conclu-
sions. It was asserted that the rainfall was increas-
ing as settlement advanced westward, or, in other
RAIN-BELTERS. 367
words, that rain came with the breaking of the. sod,
the building of railroads, telegraph lines, and other
works. The people wno adopted this theory were
locally known as " rain-belters." They showed their
confidence in the theory by taking up land in
advance of permanent settlement, far out on
the plains, confidently believing that the rain-belt
would reach them before long. They were disap-
pointed, however, and as year after year rolled by
without perceptible increase in moisture, and with
continually recurring losses of crops, they became
discouraged or literally starved out. The homes of
some of the rain-belters are shown on Pis. I, III,
and LIX, A.
There has been a succession of waves of settle-
ment following years of unusual rainfall, and time
and again men have pushed forward, getting a
foothold and raising one or two crops, and then
dropping back. This is shown by the statistics of
population of western Kansas, the numbers rising
and falling through series of years.
One of the results of climatic oscillation in the
subhumid region, and of the ruin wrought by lack
of knowledge of the facts, was the speculation in
Western mortgages, which affected not merely the
plains region, but also citizens resident in all parts
of New England and the East. As the rain-belters
marched triumphantly westward, they found that
their movements were facilitated by companies
formed to place loans and take mortgages on real
368 IRRIGATION.
estate. The profits of these loan agencies became
so great that large numbers of them were formed,
and competition for business became so keen. that
ordinary prudence was thrown aside, and the settler
no longer sought for a person to make small ad-
vances of capital by which he could procure tools
and seeds. No sooner had he located than rival
agents hunted him up, to bid against one another
for the privilege of placing a mortgage upon his
farm. These mortgages, being for a few hundred
dollars, were then peddled out to small investors
throughout the country, being purchased by school-
teachers, clerks, and mechanics, who had laid up
a small amount of money and were seeking the
largest possible interest.
Although the crop from one of these farms
would, in a year of abundant rainfall, pay off the
mortgage, this was not done, because of the desire
of the settler to purchase more farm implements or
obtain additional land ; and when a series of dry
years came and no crops were had season after
season, the landowner, appreciating that the mort-
gage and interest amounted to more than the farm
was worth, simply abandoned everything, and thus
whole counties were practically deserted ; about
the only inducement to maintain the county organi-
zation being the fees obtained by the officials in
connection with the mortgage business. This
business has continued because of the fact that
Eastern mortgagees, not knowing the true condi-
MORTGAGES. 369
tions, have often foreclosed, or transferred their
interest, or continued to pay taxes in the vain
hope that the land may some time be worth what
has been loaned.
It should not be assumed that every one has left
the subhumid region ; on the contrary, among those
who have tried their fortunes there are some who
have clung with great tenacity, and who have been
able to adapt themselves and their methods of
farming to the conditions. They have introduced
irrigation, as shown on Pis. II. and IV., or have
practised tilling of the soil in such a way as to
conserve the moisture, and have usually been able
to cut and stack sufficient hay to maintain their
cattle throughout the short winter. The vacant
public lands and the abandoned holdings about
them have furnished ample grazing for small
herds, and by planting sorghum and hardy varie-
ties of small grains they have been sure of a fair
return for their labor. When the years of abun-
dant rainfall occurred, they have sometimes been
able to secure a large crop of wheat, or even corn,
whose value has reimbursed them for all of the
previous outlay.
These sturdy pioneers have sometimes displayed
great ingenuity in utilizing the resources about
them ; such, for example, as seen in the construc-
tion of homemade windmills, shown on PL XLII
and described on page 266. By means of these
mills water has been pumped to the surface and
2B
3/0 IRRIGATION.
held in small reservoirs, or dams have been built
across ravines, impounding storm waters. The
experiments and success attained have shown that
it is possible for farmers of a high order of intelli-
gence and perseverance, not only to make a living,
but even to secure a competence, in this region
of uncertain rainfall.
Although it is now well known that the amount
of rainfall cannot be influenced by human agencies,
yet it is possible to greatly increase the available
supply for plant life by storing the water in the
soil through careful cultivation and by preventing
evaporation losses through planting wind breaks.
It is estimated that every foot of height of com-
pact trees protects i rod of ground; hence a Lom-
bardy poplar wind break of an average height of
60 feet, properly set out, has a beneficial influ-
ence extending practically 1000 feet to the lee-
ward. For these breaks poplars, cottonwoods, or
locusts are serviceable. By practising all these
economies, shutting off the wind as much as possi-
ble from the fields and using it for pumping water,
storing the scanty supply in reservoirs or in the
soil itself, the observing, careful farmer wins suc-
cess where others fail.
For convenience the boundary of the subhumid
or semiarid region has been placed on the east
at the 9/th meridian and on the west at about the
loist. It is a region of extremely fertile soil, the
erratic rainfall being followed by rapid growth of
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LVIII
A. IRRIGATION IN SOUTH DAKOTA BY USE OF WATER FROM
AN ARTESIAN WELL.
B. STOCK-WATERING PLANT ON UPLAND.
MISSOURI RIVER. 371
grasses and other plants valuable for forage.
The ground is almost everywhere covered with a
tough sod (PL LXII), which thins out toward the
arid region, gradually breaking into small patches
and finally forming what is known as bunch grass,
each tuft being surrounded by bare soil.
The water supply of this region is for the most
part concentrated in a few rivers, from which irri-
gation canals can be taken. The principal excep-
tion to this is the Missouri River, which flows
across the northern end of the subhumid belt.
The fall of this stream is so slight that it is im-
practicable to divert water by gravity. Some of
it may be had by pumping, but the increase in
value of the bottom lands would not be sufficient
to justify the expense, as many of these are kept
moist by seepage. The bench lands, having in
general a better soil, cannot be reached by a canal
from the Missouri River.
Southward from the Missouri, in North Dakota,
the principal rivers are its tributaries in South
Dakota, also the Platte in Nebraska, the Repub-
lican, Smoky Hill, and Arkansas in Kansas, and
the Canadian in Texas and Oklahoma. The
Platte and Arkansas have cut their way entirely
across the subhumid region and receive the drain-
age from the Rocky Mountains. Some of this
water succeeds in finding its way from the moun-
tains to the Mississippi River, but during the
summer the entire supply is needed for lands
3/2 IRRIGATION.
within the arid region, and for several hundred
miles these streams are nearly or quite dry.
Extensive irrigation systems have been built in
western Kansas, notably in the vicinity of Garden ;
but the chances of obtaining water are so pre-
carious that the owners of the canals have become
discouraged, and neglect to keep them in repair.
During the time of abundant rainfall irrigating
ditches in the subhurnid region fall into disuse, and
the irrigator, for lack of practice, becomes indif-
ferent. As a result, when the rains no longer
come, and day after day passes without relief,
and attention is drawn to the necessity of irriga-
tion, it is usually found that, even if there is water
in the river, there are a number of repairs to be
made to the canals and the flumes are leaking or
defective ; and, in short, before water can be
brought to the field the crop has already been
greatly injured or destroyed. It is extremely difficult
for a community raising an occasional good crop
without irrigation to maintain the necessary works
and expend labor in repairs when there is no
immediate necessity for. an outlay, and when opti-
mistic members of the community claim that the
rainfall is increasing and irrigation ditches are no
longer needed.
There is a strong opposition to letting the fact
be known that a certain region needs irrigation.
The short-sighted policy is practised of attempting
to conceal the deficiencies of climate from the
ARTESIAN WELLS. 373
would-be purchasers or investors, and, instead of
regarding the possibilities of irrigation in the light
of an insurance to the crops, it is considered as a
burden to be avoided. This is due to the fact that
most of the newcomers in the semiarid region have
practised farming in humid localities, and, not
having had experience in irrigation, are afraid or
suspicious of any proposition necessitating the arti-
ficial application of water to the soil ; thus the
attempt is sometimes made to discourage any
movement in favor of irrigation construction, for
fear of frightening away the men who are seeking
homes. As the public becomes better enlightened
upon the subject, it will come to be generally
known and acknowledged that irrigation greatly
benefits a locality.
ARTESIAN AND DEEP WELLS.
The streams which cross the semiarid region
flow in a general easterly direction, and occupy
narrow valleys trenched in the plains. A traveller
driving across country in a northerly or southerly
direction finds a rapid alternation of plain and
ravine ; but if he is going east or west on the flat
uplands between the streams, the country will
appear to his eye as perfectly level, the narrow
valleys not being visible. Out on these broad ex-
panses, unscarred by running water, are the best
soils, surpassing even those of the bottom lands.
For these areas the problem of water supply is
374 IRRIGATION.
serious, and it is often impossible to find any
feasible relief from drought. In many localities,
however, wells having a depth of from 100 to 300
feet, as shown on PL LVIII, j5, obtain an ample
supply, and in other places artesian conditions
have been found to exist, water flowing over the
surface in a quantity sufficient not only for stock,
but even for the irrigation of small farms, as
shown on PL LVIII, A.
The principal developed artesian area is in the
James River Valley of South Dakota. Here are
a considerable number of wells ranging in depth
from 1 200 to 1500 feet, some of them, as shown on
PL XL, discharging volumes of water of one cubic
foot per second, or even more, as described under
the head of Artesian Wells, p. 246. These receive
water from what is known as the Dakota sand-
stone, a thick rock, sometimes merging into shale,
but usually consisting of coarse, permeable sand-
stone. It outcrops around the Black Hills and
along the front of the Rocky Mountains, and
extends easterly under the plains at depths of
from 1000 to 2000 feet or more, as shown in Figs.
79 and 80 (p. 250), approaching the surface in
the eastern part of Kansas, Nebraska, and the
Dakotas. It outcrops along the Arkansas Valley
and appears on the surface near Coolidge in west-
ern Kansas. Wherever penetrated,' it yields an
abundant supply of good water, although at a
few places it is reported that the water is con-
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LIX.
:.-*;.. ' r*
A. SETTLER TRYING TO CULTIVATE WITHOUT IRRIGATION.
B. WATER FOR IRRIGATION PROVIDED BY WINDMILL.
DAKOTA SANDSTONE. 375
taminated by salt, probably from some other
horizon.
The position and depth of the Dakota sandstone
have been mapped around its edges, but in the centre
of the plains region the depth beneath the surface
to the sandstone is unknown. It is highly desira-
ble to drill one or two deep wells, determining the
depth, character, and thickness of the Dakota
sandstone, and ascertaining whether it or other
sandstones contain water under sufficient press-
ure to rise to the general level of the country.
It is possible that, by the complete development of
artesian wells, the opportunities for making homes
can be greatly increased.
Wherever wells have been dug or drilled in this
area it is the custom to erect windmills, as shown
on PL LIX, B. A great number of these have
been built, as the wind is blowing almost contin-
ually, with a force sufficient to operate ordinary
pumps. Many thousands of them are to be seen,
of all forms and sizes, from the clumsy, old-fash-
ioned Dutch mill shown on PI. LXI and the odd
but effective homemade devices shown on PI. XLII
to the light, rapid-running steel mill of latest im-
proved pattern shown on PL XLIII. An in-
definite extension and multiplication of these is
possible, as the power of the wind is practically
limitless, and it can usually be depended upon, al-
though sometimes failing at critical times. While
each pump will furnish water for only one or two
3/6 IRRIGATION.
acres, by increasing the number of pumps, farms
of considerable size have been successfully tilled,
as described on pages 265 to 270.
NORTH DAKOTA AND SOUTH DAKOTA.
The Dakotas extend from the fertile Red River
Valley westerly across the Missouri River, the
climate gradually becoming more and more arid
until the Black Hills are reached. The country
east of the Missouri River, consisting of extensive
prairies and rolling uplands, is usually considered
capable of raising a crop each season, although
failure or diminished yield may occur at least one
year in five. Irrigation is not largely practised,
but it would be highly beneficial. The principal
crop produced is wheat, the extremely deep, rich
soil and level surface making possible the great
so-called " bonanza " farms, where the apparently
boundless ocean of waving grain extends in all
directions to the horizon. On these great farms,
where all the work is done by machinery, the cost
of producing the crop is extremely small, and it
is not considered possible or desirable to attempt
irrigation ; but on the small tracts, where diversi-
fied agriculture is practised and the long summer
droughts bear heavily upon the plants, it has been
found profitable to artificially apply water, particu-
larly in the James River Valley, where there are a
large number of artesian wells furnishing water to
farms, as shown on PI. LVIII, A.
THE DAKOTAS. 377
West of the Missouri River the surface of the
country has been deeply eroded, the soft horizontal
beds being carved into the fantastic forms of the
Bad Lands. Some grazing is found among these,
and a little irrigation is practised at ranches along
the streams, especially near their head waters, where
they issue from the Black Hills. Here a consider-
able number of ditches have been taken out, and
agriculture has been successful because of the ex-
cellent markets afforded at the near-by mines.
NEBRASKA.
In this state irrigation is confined almost exclu-
sively to lands along the North Platte River, ex-
tending from the Wyoming line easterly to the
point where the south branch enters, forming the
main Platte River. Farther east the climate be-
comes relatively humid, and, although a few irriga-
tion systems 'have been constructed, the use of
water has not been general, owing to the fact that
in ordinary seasons crops are raised by dry farm-
ing.
The Platte and its principal tributaries are char-
acterized by broad, sandy channels, whence has
arisen the name. The view, PL LX, A, shows the
North Platte at low water, with streams meander-
ing across the sandy bottom in an interlacing
network. At high water the stream spreads out,
sometimes to great width, giving the appearance
of an enormous volume of water, as shown by
378 IRRIGATION.
PL LX, B. It is extremely shallow, however, and
there is some foundation for the popular claim that
the Platte is a mile wide and too shallow for navi-
gation by a catfish.
There is almost always water in the North Platte
and in the Platte, although it is occasionally re-
ported that during droughts the channel is dry on
the surface, the water coming from the west grad-
ually disappearing in the broad stretch of sand and
gravel, and percolating'onward beneath the surface.
The South Platte is usually dry during the summer
for a hundred miles or more in Colorado, and on
down to the junction of the channel with that of
the North Platte ; hence irrigation development
along this stream has been limited to the use of
flood waters during the early part of the year.
South of the Platte, in the valleys of the Republi-
can and other streams, and also in the northern
part of the state, small areas are cultivated success-
fully by irrigation, and this method of agriculture
is slowly extending as farmers become more skil-
ful and appreciate the advantage of security from
occasional crop failures.
A large part of the western end of Nebraska is
covered with hills of shifting sand, and although
the soil is extremely light and easily moved by the
strong winds, yet, where moistened in the hollows
between the hills, excellent crops have been pro-
duced. It is highly probable that the shifting of
these hills can be prevented by planting shrubs or
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LX.
A.
LOOKING DOWN NORTH PLATTE RIVER FROM THE
NEBRASKA- WYOMING LINE.
B. HEAD GATES OF FARMERS AND MERCHANTS IRRIGATION
COMPANY ON PLATTE RIVER, NEAR COZAD, NEBRASKA.
NEBRASKA. 379
trees, and it has been proposed to cover this vast
region more or less completely with forests, mak-
ing the waste land valuable for the production of
timber and rendering possible the utilization of the
more level portions for farms.
KANSAS.
In this state the principal irrigated areas are
along the Arkansas River, where the conditions
are somewhat similar to those along the Platte.
-The broad, shallow channel is dry for a part of the
year, but water is seeping' beneath the surface of
the valley lands as well as under the stream bed.
The ditches, some of them built at large cost, can
receive water only in times of flood ; but by means
of windmills small areas are irrigated, not only in
the valleys, but even to a small extent on the adja-
cent upland plains. Artesian wells have been suc-
cessfully constructed at a number of localities,
notably at Meade in the southern part of the
state, one of the small wells being shown on PL
XXXVIII, B.
North of the Arkansas River and between it and
the Republican in Nebraska are a number of creeks
and rivers flowing eastward and receiving a supply of
water during the dry season from perennial streams
resulting from seepage, or, in other words, from
the underflow reaching the surface. The volume
of these is swelled in the early part of j:he year by
local rains, but, taking the year as a whole, the dis-
380 IRRIGATION.
charge is wonderfully uniform, because of the slow,
gradual movement of the water from underground
into the channels. Irrigation from these streams
has been introduced, but, as noted on preceding
pages, owing to the occasional success of crops
without irrigation, progress has been slow and halt-
ing.
OKLAHOMA AND TEXAS.
In the recently settled territory of Oklahoma
little has been accomplished, as the water supply
in the western, arid end is limited and the
pioneers, coming from humid regions, have as a
rule not been familiar with the benefits of irriga-
tion and have tried to get along without artificially
applying water. This part of the territory, adja-
cent to Texas, is given up mainly to grazing, but
a few ditches have been constructed for bringing
water to alfalfa lands at the cattle ranches.
Throughout the great extent of high plains
included within what is known as the Panhandle
of Texas, irrigation is almost unknown. It is dis-
tinctly a cattle country, and water is regarded as
of value principally for the use of cattle. Wells
have been sunk on these high plains, and shallow
tanks or ponds constructed at intervals of a few
miles, to furnish convenient watering places, as
shown on PL VII. The ranches are of enormous
extent, the land having been sold or disposed of
by the state of Texas in great tracts to cattlemen.
There is a slow but gradual tendency to subdivide
TEXAS. 381
these great tracts and to increase what is known
as stock farming — that is, the carrying on of
farming in connection with the ownership of small
herds, thus multiplying the number of resident
owners. Progress in this direction is extremely
slow, and it will probably be many years before
this vast tract of country will be subdivided so as to
support a population at all commensurate with its
possibilities.
On the extreme west, Texas extends far into the
arid region, and on the border along the Rio
Grande irrigation has been practised by the Mexi-
cans living on both sides of the international boun-
dary. From the earliest historical times the small
communities have diverted water from the stream,
tilled gardens, and raised fruit sufficient for their
own needs. This condition of affairs has con-
tinued until the present time, some of the ancient
ditches having been enlarged, and in a few in-
stances, as at El Paso, large canals built to reclaim
land and provide opportunities for new settlers.
The flow of the Rio Grande is, however, extremely
erratic, and, owing doubtless to diversions in Colo-
rado and New Mexico, the channel of the river is
frequently dry for months at a time.
In the western central part of the state, as at
San Antonio and other towns settled by the Mexi-
cans, irrigation has always been practised by them,
and their example has been followed by their Eng-
lish-speaking neighbors, so that this method of
382 IRRIGATION.
agriculture may be said to be widely, but not
largely, in vogue. In the extreme east the cultiva-
tion of rice in the low Gulf counties has recently
attained great importance through the flooding of
low lands, to which water is brought largely by
pumping.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LXI.
DUTCH WINDMILL AT LAWRENCE, KANSAS.
CHAPTER XIII.
HUMID REGIONS.
EXPERIENCE has shown that irrigation is often
advantageous even in localities where the climate
is humid. If the rains came at regular intervals,
moistening the soil whenever it became dry, there
would be no need of the artificial application of
water ; but, unfortunately, it often happens that
the precipitation for a month takes place in one or
two large storms, which not only soak, but flood,
the ground and, washing away the rich surface
soil, may do more injury than good. The eastern
half of the United States has been aptly termed
the region of uncontrollable humidity, in contradis-
tinction to the arid region, where, through systems
of irrigation, the application of water to the soil
can be exactly controlled.
Some of the heavier soils retain moisture for
long periods, and the irregularities of rainfall do
not noticeably affect vegetation, although some-
what retarding its growth and development. On
sandy or pervious soils the alternations of wet
and dry produce marked changes, and a drought of
a few weeks' duration results in decided injury to
383
384 IRRIGATION.
the crops. Thus it happens that in many parts of
the humid region small irrigating systems have
been built for occasional use. The investments in
these may be regarded in the light of an insurance
against the accidents of weather, which are so
injurious to the farmer.
The most common and widespread form of
irrigation is the ordinary practice of watering lawns
and gardens. In this sense irrigation is habitually
employed in every city and town throughout the
United States, although not usually recognized
under this name. There is no marked difference
between the irrigation of suburban grass plots and
gardens in the East, and that of large farms in the
arid region, other than in size and completeness of
the mechanical devices for conveying and distribut-
ing the water.
The almost universal practice of watering grass
plots and vegetables testifies to the great value of
the artificial application of water, even in the Eastern
and Southern states, and the same systematic
watering of orchards and fields would produce
similar benefits. It is simply a question of cost
relative to profits. In the arid region, where crops
cannot be raised without water, the cost of bring-
ing it to the fields has, by skill and experience,
been reduced to the lowest possible amount. In the
humid region, where the necessity has been less,
invention and enterprise have not been stimulated
to the same degree, and, while all the facilities for
HUMID REGIONS. 385
irrigation exist, it has not been generally introduced
on a large scale.
The practice of irrigation in arid regions has, to
a certain extent, unconsciously prejudiced farmers
in the humid regions against it, ae they viewed it
as something consequent upon desert conditions.
It is, however, a method for improving the soil
comparable to the application of fertilizers. Large
expenses are incurred in purchasing enriching
material to be added to the soil, and care is taken
to save and apply barnyard manure to increase
the yield of crops. The same amount of energy
and expense devoted to the construction of irriga-
tion works would doubtless yield even larger
returns. Comparing irrigation also with drainage,
it is noted that no hesitation is felt by the farmers
of the humid East in digging ditches to remove
surplus water from fertile bottom lands, but the
reverse process, of bringing water to lands which
would be productive if sufficiently moist, is a matter
the importance of which has not been fully grasped
by the agriculturist.
Water, as stated on pages 4 and 180, is the most
important plant food, entering in great volume into
their tissues, and being the vehicle by which other
foods can be obtained in proper quantities. By
regulating the supply of this, plant growth can be
stimulated even in climates which seem moist, as
is illustrated everywhere by watering lawns and
kitchen gardens.
2C
386 IRRIGATION.
The supposedly great expense of bringing water
to the fields has deterred many farmers from
attempting irrigation. A little consideration and
study, however, will show that farm ditches can
often be built in humid lands at far less expense
than in the arid region, because the water supply
from running streams is larger and more widely
distributed. The methods of constructing ditches
have been described on pages 102 to 148, and it
has been pointed out that irrigation systems on a
rather large scale have been built by farmers or
associations without employing any special engi-
neering assistance or requiring capital. The work
can be done by plough and scraper, aided by pick
and shovel ; and a man of ordinary skill in farm
work, one who can lay out a drain or set an orchard
in regular rows, can build an irrigating ditch.
The cost of irrigation in humid regions theoreti-
cally should be less than that in the West, owing
to more widely distributed sources of water supply.
As a rule it has been higher, because most of the
devices have been experimental in character, or
have been the result of the practice of what might
be called fancy farming, where irrigation has been
treated as a fad of the owner. The average first
cost of bringing water to the land in the West, as
ascertained by the 1890 census, was $8.15 per acre,
and the average annual cost of maintenance was
$1.07 per acre. The largest yearly expenditure is
in California, as noted on pages 219 and 326. In
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LX11.
A. CLEAN SWEEP OF THE PRAIRIE FIRE.
B. THE CARPET OF GRASS ON THE HIGH PLAINS.
HUMID REGIONS. 387
the state of Connecticut 56 farms, with a total area
under ditch of 471 acres, were reported as irrigated
in 1899. The cost of the ditches, pipes, pumps,
reservoirs, and other appliances for obtaining and
conveying water to these farms was estimated at
$16,113, — an average of $34.21 per acre irrigated,
or about four times the cost in the arid region.
The value of various small fruits and market
garden crops in the vicinity of large cities is esti-
mated per acre as follows : — For strawberries and
raspberries, from $200 to $400; asparagus, $100 to
$200; onions, $150 to $300, and correspondingly
with other vegetables. It is thus very easy for large
losses to result from a slight deficiency in moisture.
With water applied at the right time a crop may
be worth $400 per acre, while the adjacent field,
receiving a trifle less supply, yields only $100. The
difference would repay the cost of one of the most
expensive devices for obtaining a water supply.
The best results have often not been obtained
because of the fear of getting the ground too wet.
In the country of uncontrollable moisture, where
rains are apt to occur any day, yet may not fall for
weeks, there is always great uncertainty as to the
weather, a condition which the farmer in the arid
region is not required to meet. He knows that
there will be no rain and probably no notable
change in temperature for weeks. But in the
humid region the farmer, seeing clouds gather,
may conclude that, even if an irrigation system is
388 IRRIGATION.
at hand, it will not be wise to turn water upon the
fields. He usually hesitates until too late to secure
the best results. • If he does apply water, the land
may be no sooner thoroughly wet than a heavy
rain will occur, almost drowning out the plants.
As a rule, however, on open or sandy soil it is diffi-
cult to apply too much water, and when the ground
is thoroughly saturated after an irrigation the rain
will merely flow off the surface or sink into the
pervious soil.
Another obstacle to the development of irriga-
tion in the East has been the possible interference
with riparian rights. The laws of the humid East,
borrowed from England, jealously guard the flow-
ing waters, and as a rule confer extraordinary
privileges upon millowners and others who make
use of the stream for power. Any diversion of the
flowing water for municipal purposes has been usu-
ally the subject of long controversy, and attempts
to take out ditches for irrigation have often met
with opposition on the part of owners of mill
rights lower down the stream. It is therefore of
great importance to have accurate measurements
of the rivers in order to ascertain to what extent
the diversion of water may affect water-power be-
low, for it can probably be shown in many cases
that the increased seepage in times of low water
will compensate largely for the diversion of water,
and may be so great as to increase the low-water
discharge of late summer.
HUMID REGIONS. 389
Owing to the fear of exactions by riparian
owners, large irrigation systems have, as a rule, not
been attempted in the East, but development has
proceeded mainly along the line of using springs
or of pumping water by wind power, steam, or
gasolene engines. Devices of this kind are being
rapidly improved and adapted to local conditions,
the cost of procuring water being correspondingly
reduced, so that it has been demonstrated that for
five or ten acres a small pumping plant can be
operated advantageously, the increased productive-
ness of the soil occasionally repaying, even in one
season, all of the expense. This, of course, can be
true only of the finer grades of fruits, berries, and
market garden products. The pumping machines
which have proved most successful are those de-
signed for strength and simplicity, so as to require
as little attention as possible.
A careful examination of the climatic records of
almost any locality in the East shows that in each
year the artificial application of water is needed for
one crop or another. Sometimes the rains occur
at the right times and in proper quantities for the
success of orchards, but the fields suffer, or the
small fruits and berries may have a diminished
yield, while the gardens prosper. One or two
years out of five nearly every crop is reduced
through lack of moisture at a certain period of
growth, so that, where diversified farming is prac-
tised and cultivation is intensive, a machine ar-
390 IRRIGATION.
ranged for providing water can be operated to
advantage for a portion of the farm at least. If,
however, only a single farm crop is raised, the
devices for procuring water are apt to fall into dis-
use, and by neglect become valueless when called
into service after standing idle for two or three
years. In short, irrigation is of greatest advan-
tage where a variety of farming operations are
practised.
It is not only the character of the crops which
must be considered in introducing irrigation in
humid climates, but also the quality of the soil.
In arid regions all ground requires artificial water-
ing. In humid regions, however, where irrigation
is needed more to regulate the time of application
than the quantity of water, the character of the soil
must be more carefully considered, since some
soils retain moisture for long periods. On such
soils crops may flourish during a moderate drought,
while on others the plants quickly wither unless
water is continually applied. There is also a great
difference in the quickness with which the soils
and the crops together seem to respond to the
application of water. With some vegetables,
deeply cultivated, there does not seem to be any
perceptible difference, while with others there is a
most marked change following the systematic prac-
tice of irrigation.
The extent of irrigation in humid regions is at-
tested by the numerous orchards and meadows
HUMID REGIONS. 391
found by the census enumerators in nearly every
state East as well as West. Even in New England
there are small farms partly irrigated and partly
drained, the distributing system having been in use
for generations, and being regarded almost as the
natural condition of things. The benefits are
shown by the larger yield of hay and of fruit,
repaying the trouble and expense of occasionally
turning the water upon the ground.
Along the Atlantic coast from eastern New Jer-
sey to Georgia are many areas of sandy soil, excel-
lent for truck farming. Here early vegetables are
raised for the New York and other markets. To
force these to maturity and insure the largest yield,
it has been found necessary to provide water, this
being distributed usually through pipes from tanks,
and occasionally through open furrows. The Chi-
nese and Italian gardeners in the suburbs of New
York and other Eastern cities, following the meth-
ods of their brothers on the Pacific Coast, irrigate
successfully even in this humid region, and pro-
duce results which are envied by their native
neighbors.
Irrigation is also practised along the Gulf coast,
particularly in Louisiana and Texas, where the cul-
tivation of rice has been found to be exceedingly
profitable. Here water is obtained mainly by
pumping, and great improvements have been made
in machinery for this purpose. Water is also being
stored for the rice fields, as it has been found that,
392 IRRIGATION.
by excessive pumping in times of drought, the salt
water from the Gulf has found its way inland up
the bayous. To prevent this, extensive reservoirs
have been constructed higher up on the rivers, in
order that the flow may be reenforced in times of
need.
Throughout the central Mississippi Valley, irri-
gation has been used to a less extent than along
the Atlantic border, as the farms are large and the
methods of cultivation are not so complete as in
localities where the soil is less productive under
natural conditions. Here, where nature has done
so much, man has attempted little. It is recog-
nized, however, that irrigation can be provided as
an insurance against crop loss. During the time
of a recent drought, when prayers were asked for
rain, one sensible preacher refused, upon the
ground that it was not proper to pray for rain
when the opportunities for irrigating the fields had
been systematically neglected. In other words, he
would not invoke supernatural agencies to repair
the consequences of man's shiftlessness.
CHAPTER XIV.
CONCLUSION.
IN summing up the whole matter of irrigation and
its present condition, nothing more concise and direct
can be given than a portion of President Roosevelt's
first message to Congress, delivered December 3,
1901. In it he made the following statements: —
" In. the arid region it is water, not land, which
measures production. The western half of the
United. States would sustain a population greater
than that of our whole country to-day if the waters
that now run to waste were saved and used for irri-
gation. The forest and water problems are per-
haps the most vital internal questions of the United
States.
" The forests are natural reservoirs. By restrain-
ing the streams in flood and replenishing them in
drought they make possible the use of waters other-
wise wasted. They prevent the soil from washing,
and so protect the storage reservoirs from filling
up with silt. Forest conservation is therefore an
essential condition of water conservation.
" The forests alone cannot, however, fully regu-
late and conserve the waters of the arid region.
Great storage works are necessary to equalize the
393
394 IRRIGATION.
flow of streams and to save the flood waters.
Their construction has been conclusively shown to
be an undertaking too vast for private effort. Nor
can it be best accomplished by the individual states
acting alone. Far-reaching interstate problems are
involved ; and the resources of single states would
often be inadequate. It is properly a national
function, at least in some of its features. It is as
right for the national government to make the
streams and rivers of the arid region useful by
engineering works for water storage as to make
useful the rivers and harbors of the humid region
by engineering works of another kind. The stor-
ing of the floods in reservoirs at the head waters of
our rivers is but an enlargement of our present
policy of river control, under which levees are
built on the lower reaches of the same streams.
" The government should construct and maintain
these reservoirs as it does other public works.
Where their purpose is to regulate the flow of
streams, the water should be turned freely into
the channels in the dry season to take the same
course under the same laws as the natural flow.
"The reclamation of the unsettled arid public
lands presents a different problem. Here it is not
enough to regulate the flow of streams. The object
of the government is to dispose of the land to set-
tlers who will build homes upon it. To accomplish
this object water must be brought within their
reach.
PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE. 395
" The pioneer settlers on the arid public domain
chose their homes along streams from which they
could themselves divert the water to reclaim their
holdings. Such opportunities are practically gone.
There remain, however, vast areas of public land
which can be made available for homestead settle-
ment, but only by reservoirs and main-line canals
impracticable for private enterprise. These irriga-
tion works should be built by the national govern-
ment The lands reclaimed by them should be
reserved by the government for actual settlers,
and the cost of construction should, so far as pos-
sible, be repaid by the land reclaimed. The dis-
tribution of the water, the division of the streams
among irrigators, should be left to the settlers
themselves, in conformity with state laws and with-
out interference with those laws or with vested
rights. The policy of the national government
should be to aid irrigation in the several states and
territories in such manner as will enable the people
in the local communities to help themselves, and
as will stimulate needed reforms in the state laws
and regulations governing irrigation.
"The reclamation and settlement of the arid
lands will enrich every portion of our country,
just as the settlement of the Ohio and Mississippi
valleys brought prosperity to the Atlantic states.
The increased demand for manufactured articles
will stimulate industrial production, while wider
home markets and the trade of Asia will consume
396 IRRIGATION.
the larger food supplies and effectually prevent
Western competition with Eastern agriculture. In-
deed, the products of irrigation will be consumed
chiefly in upbuilding local centres of mining and
other industries, which would otherwise not come
into existence at all. Our people as a whole will
profit, for successful home-making is but another
name for the upbuilding of the nation.
" The necessary foundation has already been laid
for the inauguration of the policy just described.
It would be unwise to begin by doing too much,
for a great deal will doubtless be learned, both as
to what can and what cannot be safely attempted,
by the early efforts, which must of necessity be
partly experimental in character. At the very
beginning the government should make clear,
beyond shadow of doubt, its intention to pursue
this policy on lines of the broadest public interest.
No reservoir or canal should ever be built to sat-
isfy selfish personal or local interests, but only in
accordance with the advice of trained experts, after
long investigation has shown the locality where all
the conditions combine to make the work most
needed and fraught with the greatest usefulness to
the community as a whole. There should be no
extravagance, and the believers in the need of irri-
gation will most benefit their cause by seeing to it
that it is free from the least taint of excessive or
reckless expenditure of the public moneys."
The Secretary of the Interior, Hon. Ethan Allen
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 397
Hitchcock, in his report to the President, dated
November 21, 1901, also summed up the more
important features of this great national undertak-
ing, as follows : —
"In my report for 1900 attention was called to
the importance of providing, through wise admin-
istration, for the creation of homes for millions of
people upon the arid but fertile public lands. This
matter is being given increased attention by the
public press and by writers upon the subject.
" Briefly stated, the results of the examination of
the extent to which arid lands can be reclaimed by
irrigation show that, while one-third of the United
States is still vacant, there are relatively few local-
ities where homes can now be made. This is not
because the soil is barren or infertile, but on ac-
count of the difficulty of securing an adequate
water supply. There is water to be had, but this
water is mainly in large rivers, from which it can
be taken only by great structures, or the supply
comes in sudden floods and cannot be utilized until
great reservoirs have been built. It is impossible
for a laboring man or an association of settlers to
build these great works.
" The pioneer coming to the arid region found
many small streams from which water could be
taken out upon agricultural land. He was able
through his own efforts to irrigate a small farm
and to make a home. These easily available
waters have been taken, and a man can no longer
398 IRRIGATION.
secure a foothold, although there still remain 600,-
000,000 acres of vacant land. It is possible, by
water storage and by building diversion works
from great rivers, to bring water to points where
such men can utilize it and can enjoy opportunities
similar to those had by the earlier settlers. Unless
this is done much of the country must remain bar-
ren, and thousands of men and women eager to
become independent citizens must remain as wan-
derers or tenants of others.
" Enough work has been done by private capital
to demonstrate the fact that water conservation
and the diversion of large rivers is practicable, but,
like many other works of great public importance,
.it cannot be made a source of profit. The works
of reclamation already constructed have, as a rule,
been unprofitable, and capitalists are no longer
seeking opportunities for reclaiming desert land
when the probabilities are against their receiving
an adequate compensation for the risk and labor
involved.
" The argument has been presented that if the
government will not make it possible to bring
water to these lands they should be turned over to
the states; but the majority of citizens who have
studied the subject are opposed to such action, on
the ground that the vacant public lands are the
heritage of the people of the United States and
should be held for the creation of homes, and not
made a subject of speculation, as has almost inva-
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 399
riably been the case with lands donated to the
states. The whole trend of enlightened public
sentiment is in favor of an expansion of industries
and commerce internally through wise action by
the national government rather than attempting
to get rid of the duties and opportunities of owner-
ship by giving away this valuable property.
" Two distinct conditions are to be clearly dis-
tinguished in the problem of water conservation
for the development of the West. On the one
hand, there are localities where the agricultural
land along the rivers has been brought under irri-
gation and there is a demand for water to an extent
far exceeding the supply, and where all of the
flood water, though stored, would not suffice to sat-
isfy the demands of the lands now partly tilled.
The other contrasting condition is where there
still remain vast bodies of public land for which
water can be provided by means of reservoirs or by
diversion from large rivers whose flow cannot be
used. Here the construction of works of reclama-
tion in no way affects lands now in private owner-
ship. Between these two extremes are all varieties
of intermediate conditions, but these may be arbi-
trarily classed with one or the other.
" In the first case reservoirs, if constructed, must
be treated in the same way in which other public
works having to do with rivers and harbors are
managed. The water conserved should be used to
increase the flow of the stream during the season
402 IRRIGATION.
"Underground waters may be had in some
localities where it is not practicable to irrigate the
surface by means of stored water. The conditions
favorable for artesian wells are believed to exist in
a number of desert areas, and it is probable that
important sources of supply can be had by artesian
wells. The division of hydrography has begun
the systematic study of some of these places, and
has prepared maps showing the depth beneath the
surface of the water-bearing rocks. Such maps
are invaluable in the development of the country.
These can be prepared for the edges of the artesian
basins, where the rocks are partly upturned, but
far out from the mountains it is necessary to sink
test wells. If these are properly located after
thorough study of all the surrounding conditions,
it may be possible to settle the question of artesian
supplies and definitely outline the underground
condition for hundreds of square miles of public
land. Only by obtaining such information can the
value of this land and the practicability of settle-
ment be made known. It is highly important,
therefore, that a few such deep wells be drilled by
the government upon desert land, for the purpose
of demonstrating the possibility of reclamation.
When it is proved that water can be had, even at
considerable depths, settlement will follow.
" There is no function within the power of the
government higher than that of making possible
the creation of prosperous homes. In his sj
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 401
payment of the cost of storing water, the specula-
tive element will be eliminated, leaving the ground
free to bona fide settlers.
" It is safe to predict from the recent struggles
for homes upon the public domain that, if it should
be determined that the San Carlos dam, for ex-
ample, is to be built by the government, every
acre of vacant land to be supplied with water
would be immediately taken in small tracts by men
who would not only cultivate the ground when
water is had, but in the meantime would be avail-
able as laborers in the construction of the works,
and would ultimately refund to the government the
cost of the undertaking. In this manner thousands
of the best class of citizens in the country would
be permanently located in prosperous homes upon
what is now a desert waste.
" It has been estimated that the western half of
the United States would sustain a population as
great as that of the whole country at4present, if the
waters now unutilized were saved and employed in
irrigating the ground.
" The first step in water conservation has been
taken by Congress in giving authority for setting
aside great areas of wooded land, largely for the
beneficial influence which they exert upon the
water supply. This should be followed by the con-
struction, within the forest reserves, and elsewhere
when practicable, of substantial dams impounding
flood and waste waters.
2 D
402 IRRIGATION.
" Underground waters may be had in some
localities where it is not practicable to irrigate the
surface by means of stored water. The conditions
favorable for artesian wells are believed to exist in
a number of desert areas, and it is probable that
important sources of supply can be had by artesian
wells. The division of hydrography has begun
the systematic study of some of these places, and
has prepared maps showing the depth beneath the
surface of the water-bearing rocks. Such maps
are invaluable in the development of the country.
These can be prepared for the edges of the artesian
basins, where the rocks are partly upturned, but
far out from the mountains it is necessary to sink
test wells. If these are properly located after
thorough study of all the surrounding conditions,
it may be possible to settle the question of artesian
supplies and definitely outline the underground
condition for hundreds of square miles of public
land. Only by obtaining such information can the
value of this land and the practicability of settle-
ment be made known. It is highly important,
therefore, that a few such deep wells be drilled by
the government upon desert land, for the purpose
of demonstrating the possibility of reclamation.
When it is proved that water can be had, even at
considerable depths, settlement will follow.
" There is no function within the power of the
government higher than that of making possible
the creation of prosperous homes. In his speech
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 403
in Minneapolis, Mr. Roosevelt said : ' Through-
out our history the success of the home-maker has
been but another name for the upbuilding of the
nation.' The remaining public lands are the heri-
tage of the nation, and should be held for homes,
being reserved for actual settlers under the home-
stead act. The area to be taken by any one man
should be reduced so that when water has been
conserved by the government the homestead shall,
in certain parts of the country, be limited to
eighty or even forty acres.
" The investigations of the government experts
have shown that, for example, in Arizona, where
high-class fruits are cultivated, a family of five can
obtain a good living upon forty acres, or even
twenty. In the colder parts of the arid region,
where forage crops are largely raised, the area
may be made one hundred and sixty acres.
" The water for irrigation should be distributed
in conformity with the laws of the state and with-
out interference with any vested rights which have
already accrued.
" Where reservoirs or main-line canals are built
by the national government to furnish water for
the public lands, the administration should pro-
ceed in harmony with the state laws, as would be
the case with any other large landowner — state
and nation cooperating to accomplish a result of
far-reaching benefit to both.
" The expansion of our interior trade and com-
404 IRRIGATION.
mcrcc, through the settlement of the arid lands
and the increase of population in the West, would
benefit every class and section of our country, in
the same way that the settlement of the Ohio and
Mississippi valleys has brought prosperity and
wealth to the states east of the Alleghanics. The
settlement of the vast arid region still farther to
the west would benefit the whole eastern half of
the United States by creating new home markets
for Eastern merchants, Southern cotton growers,
and all manufacturers. It would enormously in-
crease local traffic, and would tend to relieve the
congestion of our great centres of population,
creating opportunities which would go far to allay
social discontent. It would promote industrial
stability by giving to every man who wanted it a
home on the land. The rush for lands in Okla-
homa testifies that there are multitudes of our
people who will make great sacrifices to secure
such homes.
"There need be no fear of competition of West-
ern products with Eastern agriculture, since the
Asiatic markets now opened will absorb the sur-
plus of the Western farms. The character of
these is also such that the staple crops of the East
cannot now go to the remote West, nor those of
the West come East, excepting in the case of semi-
tropic and dried fruits.
" The investigations which have been carried on
demonstrate that, looking at the matter from all
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 405
sides, there is no one question now before the people
of the United States of greater importance than the
conservation of the water supply and the reclama-
tion of the arid lands of the West, and tJieir set-
tlement by men who will actually build homes and
create communities. The appreciation of this con-
dition is shown by the fact that both the great
political parties inserted in their platforms articles
calling attention to the necessity of national aid
for the creation of homes on the public domain.
"In view of the facts above noted it is impera-
tive to adopt at an early date a definite policy
leading to the best use of the vacant public lands.
It is recommended that construction be at once
begun upon certain property where the conditions
are known to be such that beneficial results will
follow."
The President and Secretary do not ask the
government to do something which might be better
done by private enterprise. The latter has already
built irrigation works sufficient to utilize nearly the
whole available flow of the streams in the arid regions
during the irrigation season. Further progress in
irrigation can come only through the storage of
flood waters in reservoirs ; and nearly all of this
work is absolutely impossible without government
aid. Remembering the great productiveness of
irrigated lands, and that farming with irrigation is
almost always intensive farming, the estimate that
these reclaimed lands will provide food and homes
406 IRRIGATION.
for a population "greater than that of our whole
country to-day" does not seem extravagant.
In comparison with such a possible development
every other project or public work which the govern-
ment is asked to undertake seems indeed insignifi-
cant. The dead and profitless deserts need only
the magic touch of water to make arable lands that
will afford farms and homes for the surplus people of
our overcrowded Eastern cities, and for that end-
less procession of home-seekers filing through Castle
Garden.
The national government, the owner of these
arid lands, is^ the only power competent to carry
this mighty enterprise to a successful conclusion,
to divide the reclaimed lands into small farms for
actual settlers and home-builders only, and to pro-
vide water for the settlers at a price sufficient
merely to reimburse the cost of the work.
When the plans for irrigation suggested by
President Roosevelt and Secretary Hitchcock are
carried out, every section of this country will be
benefited. The East and Middle West will find in
that regenerated empire a market for machinery
and manufactured products of every description ;
the South will find ready sale for the fabrics of
her cotton looms; while the farmers of the reclaimed
regions will send the cereal products of their acres
across the Pacific to the swarming millions of the
Orient. Viewed from every standpoint, the national
irrigation movement is full of promise to the nation.
CHAPTER XV.
RECLAMATION ACT.
THE predictions made in the preceding para-
graphs have been verified with almost startling
rapidity. The people and Congress awoke at the
call of the President and his assistants. The prepa-
rations and plans made through a decade reached
fruition even more rapidly than had been hoped
by the most sanguine of the advocates of national
irrigation. The so-called Newlands Bill was taken
up, modified by Congress, and finally became a law
by the signature of the President on the i/th of
June, 1902. This act set aside the proceeds from
the disposal of public lands in the thirteen Western
states and three territories. The money thus
appropriated, amounting on June 30, 1905, to
$27,770,815, is held as a fund to be drawn upon
by the Secretary of the Interior for the survey and
construction of irrigation works, the cost of which
is to be returned to the fund in ten annual install-
ments, to be paid by the owners of the lands bene-
fited by the works. Operations under this law
were immediately begun by the formation of what
is known as the Reclamation Service, this being
under, but not a part of, the Geological Survey,
407
408 IRRIGATION.
the organization which for many years had been
studying the water supply and topography of the
arid regions and which was prepared to enter at
once upon the more extensive and difficult work
of actual reclamation.
The first operations were in the Salt River Valley
in Arizona, where the people, in their anxiety to
secure federal aid, had already taxed themselves
and had raised funds for expenditure by the Geo-
logical Survey in getting ready such of the infor-
mation as would be needed whenever the national
agencies were ready to begin. At about the same
time, work was begun in Nevada, where, through
the far sight of Mr. Francis G. Newlands (then a
representative — later a senator from Nevada), a
large amount of definite information had already
been accumulated and title secured to important
reservoir sites. The needs and opportunities for
reclamation in Arizona and Nevada were the most
pressing of those in the entire arid West. Having
put the work here in motion, the Reclamation Serv-
ice next gave attention to other localities, and
within four years from the time of the passage of
the act construction had practically begun in each
of the states and territories of the arid West where
the conditions of land ownership were such that
proper control could be had of the irrigable areas.
In the following paragraphs a brief outline is
given of the principal work in hand. It would
require another volume of the size of this ade-
V-
RECLAMATION ACT. 409
quately to describe these works and to discuss the
problems of construction, operation, and manage-
ment which are 'confronting the agents of the gov-
ernment. The problems are difficult and vary in
each locality ; but it is confidently believed that,
with the experience had and with the start already
made, it will be practicable to overcome these diffi-
culties in detail. The most important matter is to
carry on the work under the general provisions of
the law with such economy and effectiveness that
the people of the country as a whole and the Con-
gress will have continued confidence in the good
management of the work and will be ready to
assist whenever the need arises.
Arizona. — As noted in the description of this
territory on page 307, the most notable opportunity
for storing water is at the junction of Tonto Creek
and Salt River. This is about 70 miles east of the
city of Phoenix, where the structure known as the
Roosevelt Dam is under construction with the object
of storing the floods for a gravity supply of about
160,000 acres of land in the vicinity of Phoenix.
A large amount of power will be developed at this
point and utilized for pumping water from under-
ground for an additional 20,000 or more acres.
Nearly all of the land which will be irrigated is
in private ownership and the prospect of an early
supply of water has given this land, though desert
in character, a large value. Twenty acres, or
even less, of this valley land will, when carefully
410 IRRIGATION.
cultivated, be sufficient for the support of a
family.
California. — The principal operations in this
state under the terms of the Reclamation Act
are at the two extremes, the first on the lower
reaches of Colorado River in the vicinity of Yuma,
Arizona, the second on the Oregon border around
the Klamath Lakes.
About 12 miles north of Yuma there is being
built a low dam or weir, 4780 feet in length, extend-
ing across the Colorado River, for the purpose of
raising the water about 12 feet and diverting it
into canals, taken out on both sides of the river,
irrigating fertile lowlands in California and Arizona
down to the Mexican border. The climate and
altitude are such that the most valuable semi-tropic
crops can be produced, and under careful cultiva-
tion one or two acres, or possibly five acres, will be
amply sufficient for the support of a family. The
low alluvial lands along the river are protected
by dikes, and the water is distributed over these
lands through lateral ditches. It is expected that
under careful management the products from this
area will be fully as valuable, and will add as
greatly to the prosperity of the state, as those
from the valleys farther west in the vicinity of
Los Angeles, as described on page 327.
Colorado. — In this state the principal work by
the government is the tunnel nearly six miles in
length leading from the part of Gunnison River
IRRIGATION.
PLATE I XIII.
RECLAMATION ACT. 411
where it is in a narrow canon, and extending
under the high mountain mass to the broad
valley of Uncompahgre River. A view of the
heading of this tunnel is shown on PL LXIII.
At this point is the power plant, the mouth of the
tunnel being on the edge of the river at about the
center of the picture. The tunnel starts in solid
granite and ends on the valley side in soft shale,
much of which is decomposed into clay. This soft
material has been exceedingly treacherous, and it
has been necessary to line the tunnel with timber,
which in turn is embedded in concrete. A view
of the timber lining before the concrete has been
inserted is shown in PL LXIV.
From this tunnel the water will be distributed
by canals, taken out on both sides of the valley,
watering about 90,000 acres of land, at an esti-
mated cost of $30 per acre. This land is highly
productive, the valley being already renowned for
the excellent quality of apples, pears, peaches, and
other fruit produced.
Idaho. — In southern Idaho, as noted on page
337, the chief interest centers around the use of
the water of Snake River. The principal govern-
ment works consist of a dam across this river and
canals on each bank, taking water out on what is
known as the Minidoka tract, a nearly level sage-
brush-covered plain. The country is so flat that
careful surveys were necessary in order to deter-
mine the direction of the slopes- The river has
412 IRRIGATION.
been controlled by a great dam of loose rock with
concrete core and the water taken out, mainly on
the north side, to cover about 75,000 acres. The
cost has been placed at $26 per acre. The land
to be covered was at the beginning of the work
all in public ownership, and the area has been
subdivided into farm units of 40 or 80 acres. Set-
tlement followed immediately upon the construc-
tion of the canals, and a number of towns sprang
up with surprising rapidity. The rich desert soil
is capable of producing, when watered, a vigorous
growth of forage plants, fruit crops, and vegetables
common to the temperate zone. Orchards of the
hardier fruits flourish to perfection.
Kansas. — In the western part of this state large
investments have been made, as noted on page 379,
in the construction of gravity irrigation works ; but
these, as a rule, have been failures, owing to the
diversion of water from the streams at points
nearer their source. The sands or gravels which
underlie the broad valleys are usually saturated
with water, and it is practicable to pump some of
this water to the surface with sufficient economy
to utilize it in irrigation, particularly in the produc-
tion of sugar beets.
The works of the government have been designed
with reference to the possibility of bringing to the
surface, by means of carefully planned pumps, some
of the water which has been found to occur in
large volumes in the valley of the Arkansas River.
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LXIV.
RECLAMATION ACT 413
A pumping plant has been begun in the vicinity of
Garden City, Kansas/ to supply upwards of 10,000
acres of valley or low-lying bench land. The soil,
although very fertile, does not receive each year
sufficient moisture from rainfall to give full-crop
production, and it is believed that by having water
at critical times the yield will be greatly increased.
Montana. — In Montana surveys and examina-
tions have been made along the tributaries of the
Yellowstone and the Missouri, especially on Milk
River, an international stream, as described on
page 340. The principal obstacle to development
on this river has been that arising from shortage
of water and complication of vested rights among
the various claimants, most of whom have been
unwilling or extremely slow in making any con-
cessions for the general welfare. The difficulties
also of securing an adjustment with Canada by
which water might be brought from St. Mary River
through Canadian territory have resulted in rela-
tively slow progress. To the south, however, on
Yellowstone River, the complications of vested
water rights have not proved as destructive, owing
to the fact that th.e water supply is large and the
diversions have not yet reached the limit of supply.
Construction has been taken up in the vicinity of
Huntley, water being taken from the south side of
Yellowstone River, upon about 30,000 acres of land,
on what was formerly the northern part of the Crow
Indian Reservation.
414 IRRIGATION
Farther down the stream a dam has been placed
across the- Yellowstone River about 18 miles below
Glendive. This is submerged during floods, but
during summer the water is raised and thrown
into a large canal, following along on the left bank
of the river, down to the junction of the Missouri
River, embracing about 60,000 acres of land in
Montana, and 20,000 acres in North Dakota.
Nebraska. — In the western part of this state a
large area of desert land is being reclaimed on the
north side of North Platte River (see PI. LXV),
water being taken from this stream in the state of
Wyoming by what is known as the Interstate
Canal. The low-water flow of this river has already
been appropriated, and to supply the needs of
others it has been necessary to resort to storage
higher up the river near the center of Wyoming,
by what is known as the Pathfinder Dam, located
on North Platte River immediately below the junc-
tion of Sweetwater River. The accompanying
view (PL LXV) shows the narrow canon in which
the dam is being built. Above this canon the val-
ley opens, forming a broad basin in which the
water is held.
Nevada. — In this state, as before stated, the
opportunities for development have been among the
best in the arid West, owing to the extreme aridity
of the climate and the large extent of vacant public
land to which water could be brought from the
rivers arising in the Sierra Nevada, as described
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LXV.
RECLAMATION ACT 415
on page 343. The enormous area of the state
when compared with the scanty population has
made it particularly important from the standpoint
of broad statesmanship to develop the resources of
the state and create here a population adequate to
the state organization. For this reason the develop-
ment of Nevada has appealed particularly to public
men in all parts of the country.
The first actual construction under the Reclama-
tion Act was begun in this state, in the building of
a dam on Truckee River and a canal taking water
from this stream over into the Carson Basin.
There, uniting with the excess water from Carson
River, a supply is furnished for a network of canals
extending over the desert around Carson Lake and
Carson Sink. The dam across Truckee River is
shown in the accompanying view (PL LXVI), this
being taken on the i/th of June, 1905, at the time
of the formal inauguration of the works, on the
third anniversary of the passage of the Reclama-
tion Act.
A view looking down the cement-lined canal
is also shown in PI. LXVII. This illustrates
the difficulty of construction, and the methods
adopted of carrying water along the hillsides
nearly parallel to the transcontinental railroad,
where any accident to the canal with its great
volume of water might result in serious disaster
to the traveling public. By reducing the area and
putting the canal in the narrow, cement-lined trench,
416 IRRIGATION
it becomes possible to conduct practically the entire
low-water flow of the river along the steep hillsides
and out on the plains.
The vast extent of desert land is far in excess of
the amount of water which can ever be stored or
brought to it. It is, therefore, practicable to pick
out the best spots and leave the alkaline areas.
The great problem to be solved after water has
been brought to this land is that of properly cul-
tivating the soil and providing drainage so that the
alkaline salts will not be brought to the surface
and tend to accumulate there.
New Mexico. — In this territory the great problem
is the utilization of the waters of the Rio Grande and
of its principal tributary, the Pecos, lying to the east
of the main stream. The conditions have been de-
scribed on page 348, where it is stated that it has
been proposed to construct a great international
dam below El Paso. Later investigations have
shown that greater economy and effectiveness can
be produced by locating the storage dam 120 miles
farther north on the river, near what is known as
Elephant Butte. By placing a large dam here, it
will be possible to hold the entire flood flow of the
Rio Grande, and utilize it on about 180,000 acres
of land lying in New Mexico and along the river
in Texas, both above and below El Paso. The
principal advantages over the international dam
site are that the storage capacity at the upper or
Engle site is greater, the land to be flooded less
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LXVI.
RECLAMATION ACT 417
valuable, and it will not be necessary to waste any
of the water, as would have been the case at the
lower site. The total cost of this large project is
estimated at $7,200,000. The first step is the
building of what is known as the Leasburg diver-
sion dam and canal on the Rio Grande, at the head
of the Mesilla Valley.
On the Pecos River the first work constructed
by the government has been the storage dam near
Roswell, to take the flood flow of Hondo River,
with which to irrigate about 10,000 acres. Below
this are the works near Carlsbad, which, built by
private capital, have failed through the washing
out of the principal dam. These works, when
acquired by the government, are capable of being
repaired and strengthened, insuring the complete
irrigation of at least 20,000 acres of excellent
land.
North Dakota. — Throughout the greater part
of this state farming or ranching has, as a rule,
been successful without irrigation. There have
been some areas cultivated under irrigation in the
extreme northwestern part of the state ; but owing
to the occasional wet years, this method of agri-
culture has not attained prominence. It is almost
impossible to obtain a gravity supply of water for
any considerable area in the state, but the largest
developments will probably take place through
pumping from the Missouri and other rivers,
whose grade or slope is so nearly level that water
418 IRRIGATION
cannot be economically obtained in any other
manner.
Under the terms of the Reclamation Act, plans
have been made for pumps to be located on Mis-
souri River, near Williston and Bismarck ; but the
chief obstacle to success is the indifference of the
people and their hesitation about assuming addi-
tional burdens and making expensive experiments
when they have reached a fair degree of success
by ordinary methods of farming.
OklaJioma. — In this territory, as in North
Dakota, irrigation is exceptional, and it is only
on the extreme western border that much interest
is displayed in the matter. The chief difficulty
is the saline quality of much of the water, which,
flowing from gypsum- or salt-impregnated soils
and stored in reservoirs where the salts are con-
centrated, is apt to be highly injurious, unless
used with very great care.
On the North Fork of Red River, a locality
suitable for storing flood water has been discovered
at a point near Navajoe Mountain. Water stored
here can be taken out on both sides of the river,
covering lands in the vicinity of the town of
Snyder. It is, however, somewhat salty, and the
cost of irrigation will be notably high.
Oregon. — In the southern part of this state,
adjacent to California, is the Klamath project,
water for which is derived from the upper Kla-
math Lake, and taken out by canals on the valleys
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LXVII.
418 IRRIGATION
cannot be economically obtained in any other
manner.
Under the terms of the Reclamation Act, plans
have been made for pumps to be located on Mis-
souri River, near Williston and Bismarck ; but the
chief obstacle to success is the indifference of the
people and their hesitation about assuming addi-
tional burdens and making expensive experiments
when they have reached a fair degree of success
by ordinary methods of farming.
Oklahoma. — In this territory, as in North
Dakota, irrigation is exceptional, and it is only
on the extreme western border that much interest
is displayed in the matter. The chief difficulty
is the saline quality of much of the water, which,
flowing from gypsum- or salt-impregnated soils
and stored in reservoirs where the salts are con-
centrated, is apt to be highly injurious, unless
used with very great care.
On the North Fork of Red River, a locality
suitable for storing flood water has been discovered
at a point near Navajoe Mountain. Water stored
here can be taken out on both sides of the river,
covering lands in the vicinity of the town of
Snyder. It is, however, somewhat salty, and the
cost of irrigation will be notably high.
Oregon. — In the southern part of this state,
adjacent to California, is the Klamath project,
water for which is derived from the upper Kla-
math Lake, and taken out by canals on the valleys
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LXVII.
RECLAMATION ACT 419
which extend south into California. The oppor-
tunities for development here are excellent, and
although the altitude is somewhat high, the crop
production under irrigation is large. The area is
remote from centers of population ; but with the
comparative ease of construction of reclamation
works, large results are expected.
At the other extremity of the state, along Uma-
tilla River, are excellent opportunities for storage
and distribution of water to lands at low altitude,
lying near water transportation and susceptible of
the most intense cultivation. Here the Umatilla
project promises to bring about the making of a
large number of small and successful farms.
SoutJi Dakota. — Around the Black Hills is a
considerable extent of arid country, very produc-
tive when watered. The water supply from the
Black Hills is not large, but is fairly well dis-
tributed. To the north of the hills is the Belle-
fourche project, constructed by the government,
flood water being taken out through a large canal
to a reservoir, from which the supply can be dis-
tributed to about 85,000 acres at a cost of approxi-
mately $32 per acre. The reclaimed lands have
been subdivided, mainly in 8o-acre tracts, this
amount of land being, as a rule, sufficient for the
support of a family.
Utah. — Developments in this state under indi-
vidual and corporate effort have proceeded to a
point such that there are found to be few oppor-
420 IRRIGATION
tunities for additional reclamation on a large scale,
except through adjustment of many complicated
water rights. The difficulties of harmonizing all
of the claims to water have been such that the
first work undertaken by the government is that
of storing water at the head of Duchesne River
in Strawberry Valley, with the intention of taking
this water through a tunnel about three miles long
into the watershed of the interior basin. These
works, when completed, will furnish water for at
least 25,000 acres of land situated south of Utah
Lake.
Washington. — The Yakima Valley, although
partially developed by private enterprise, has
offered the best opportunities for future work by
the government, because of the large available
reservoir sites at the head of the stream. The
complications of vested rights has deterred con-
struction ; but with the settlement of these it will
be possible to store water for at least 100,000
acres, and to double or treble the population of
this valley.
Farther to the north, on the Okanogan, not far
below the Canadian border, is an excellent tract
of land capable of producing high-grade fruit.
Here about 8000 acres of land can be irrigated by
storage of the -floods of Conconnully Creek and its
tributaries.
Wyoming. — Reference has already been made
to the Pathfinder reservoir in the southern part
IRRIGATION.
PLATE LXVIII.
RECLAMATION ACT 421
of this state. Farther to the north on Shoshone
River, is an excellent opportunity for storing water
at the place shown in PL LXVIII. Here it is
proposed to build one of the highest dams in the
world, this being 310 feet from the lowest founda-
tion to the crest. The gap in which the dam is
being built is extremely narrow ; but above this
is a broad basin, capable of holding water for
about 100,000 acres of irrigable public land. This
land lies in the Bighorn Basin, east of the town
of Cody, and at an altitude such that the ordinary
crops of the temperate region can be produced.
The works already planned or under way under
the terms of the Reclamation Act will serve to
irrigate over a million acres of the best lands of
the West. Ultimately it may be expected that,
with intensive farming and such subdivision of
the land as will take place after settlement, these
areas will support a population of one person
to the acre, or at least one person to two acres,
counting in this not merely the farmer and his
family, but also the other persons, such as the
shopkeepers, railroad men, mechanics, and their
families, and all who are brought into the country,
directly or indirectly, through the industries cre-
ated by handling and marketing the products of
the soil. It is not too much to expect that the
prophecy made in the early part of this chapter
will be fully realized by the men now living.
INDEX.
Aberdeen, So. Dak., artesian wells
of, 249.
Accuracy of weir measurements.
100.
Acre-foot, denned, 83.
Advantages of irrigation, 272-285.
Alfalfa, flooding of, 199.
Algeria, reference to, 317.
Alkali, 281-285.
Alkali along Rio Grande, 349.
Alkali, in seepage water, 227.
American Falls, Id., 337.
Amount of water applied, 212-220.
Anaheim, Cal., 323, 326.
Anti-debris law, 318.
Apache Indians, 308.
Appalachian region, rainfall of, 26.
Appropriation of water, 286-298.
Appurtenant water rights, 295.
Aquatic plants in canals, 148.
Arid regions, location of, 13.
Arid States and Territories, 299-
303-
Arizona Agricultural Experiment
Station, work of, 45.
Arizona, described, 304-312.
Arizona, methods of irrigation in,
188.
Arizona, miner's inch in, 129.
Arizona, use of water in, 214.
Arkansas River, Col., 329-332.
Artesian conditions in Oregon,
351-353-
Artesian conditions in Utah, 358.
Artesian condition on Great Plains,
373-376.
Artesian wells, 246-253.
Artesian wells in Kansas, 379.
Artesian wells in Washington, 360-
361.
Asia, trade with, 395, 404.
Associations of irrigators, 107, 109.
Atlantic and Pacific land grant, 7.
Atlantic coast, rainfall on, 23.
Atmospheric movement, 16.
Austin, Tex., dam, failure of, 162.
Azusa, Cal., charge for water at,
326.
Bad Lands, So. Dak., 377.
Barley, water required by, 213.
Basin irrigation, 204, 219.
Battery for current meter, 89.
Bear River Canal, Utah, 355, 356.
Bear Valley Dam, 317.
Beowawe, Neb., rainfall at, 18.
Berlin, sewage irrigation, 277.
Bighorn Mountains, Wyo., 362, 363.
Billings, Mont., 340.
Bisulphate of mercury battery, 90.
Black alkali, 282.
Black Hills, So. Dak., 377.
Black Hills, Wyo., 362-363.
Block system of irrigation, 188.
Blue Mountains, Or., 335, 350-353.
Boats for stream measurement, 93.
Boise, Id., 336.
Boise, Id., rainfall at, 18.
Boise River, Id., 334-338.
Bonds to aid irrigation construc-
tion, 108.
Boxes for taking water, 184, 185.
Bozeman, Mont., 340.
Brush dams, 116, 117.
Buffalo, N.Y., rainfall at, 20.
Bunch grass on the plains, 371.
423
424
INDEX.
Cable and car for measuring river,
93-95-
Cache la Pouche River, Col., 332,
333-
Cache la Poudre, water diverted to,
178.
Cache Valley, Utah, dry farming in,
Si-
California, artesian wells of, 248.
California, description of, 312-328.
California, dry farming in, 49.
California, miner's inch in, 129.
California, Southern, deserts of, 27.
California, Southern, use of water
in, 216-219.
California, summer droughts in,
21.
Canada, arid regions in, 14.
Canadian Pacific railway hydraulic
fills, 173.
Canvas dam, 196, 197.
Carlsbad, N. Mex., 350.
Carson River, Nev., 343-345.
Carson sink, deserts near, 56.
Cascade Range, Or., 350.
Cascade Range, rivers from, 61.
Cascade Range, Wash., 358, 359.
Casing of wells, 245.
Castle Garden, immigrants, 406.
Cattle grazing, 36-49.
Cement distributing ditch, 206.
Cement for dams, 156.
Cement lining of canals, 139-141.
Cement pipe irrigation, 207.
Central Pacific land grant, 7.
Checks for irrigating, 185-193.
Cheyenne, Wyo., 362, 363.
Cheyenne, Wyo., rainfall at, 18.
Chinese gardeners, 391.
Chinese gardeners, using irrigation,
191.
Cienegas4 flow of water from, 325.
Cippoletti weir, 132-134.
Citrus land, Cal., charge for water,
327.
Cleaning reservoirs, 156-159.
Climate is fixed, 26.
Climate not changing, 71.
Climate of West formerly humid,
70.
Coast range, lands near, 17.
Coast Range, rivers from, 61.
Colorado, eastern, dry farming in,
49.
Colorado, irrigation in, 329-333.
Colorado, miner's inch in, 129.
Colorado River, 331.
Colorado River, 305, 313.
Colorado River, deserts near, 27.
Colorado River, Col., deserts near,
56.
Colorado River, location of, 59, 61.
Colorado River, Tex., dam on, 162.
Colorado River, Utah, 357, 358.
Colorado Springs, Col., 330.
Colorado water laws, in.
Columbia River, location of, 60.
Columbia River, Wash., 359-360.
Common fund of water, 216.
Competition between East and
West, 396, 404.
Compressed air for pumping, 269.
Computations of stream flow, 82-
101.
Congress, action in water storage,
401.
Congress, land under control of, 6.
Connecticut, irrigation in, 387.
Constructing a ditch, 103-106.
Contour maps of reservoirs, 153,
154.
Conveying stream waters, 102-148.
Coolidge, Kan., artesian conditions
at, 374-
Cordillera Mountain system, effect
on climate, 17.
Corona, Cal., charge for water at,
326.
Corporations for irrigation, 107.
Cost of irrigation, 386, 387.
Cotton wood Creek, Utah, weir on,
98.
INDEX.
425
Crocker- Huffman Canal, Cal., tun-
nel on, 139.
Crooked River, Or., 351.
Cubic foot per second as a unit,
83, 84.
Cultivable areas, comparison with
cultivated, 52.
Cultivated lands, 49-56.
Curbing of wells, 244.
Current Meters, 89-97.
Dakota sandstone, 374-376.
Dams and head gates, 115-119.
Dams, earth, 166-170.
Dam, for measuring water, 97-101.
Dams, hydraulic, 170-173.
Dams, masonry, 159-162.
Dams, rock-filled, 162-166.
Debris from placer mining, 172.
Denmark, comparison of area of,
302.
Derrick for artesian wells, 249.
Deschutes River, Or., fluctuations
of, 63.
Desert lands, area by states, 55.
Deserts, extent of, 28.
Distributing ditches, 183.
Distributing water on rolling land,
201.
Distribution of flow, 108-115.
District law of California, 319.
Ditch construction, 103-106.
Ditches, distributing, 183.
Ditch-rider, 107.
Diversion of waters, 102-108.
Dividing stream waters, 102-148.
Dividing water proportionally, 121.
Drainage and irrigation, 385.
Drainage and irrigation, 212.
Drainage, importance of, 58.
Drops in canals, 145.
Drought in California, 321, 324.
Dry farming, 49-51.
Dry farming, independence of, 10.
Dutch windmill, 375.
Duly of water, 215.
Duty of water under Sweetwater
system, California, 328.
Earth dams, 166-170.
Earth reservoirs, for windmill irri-
gation, 268.
Economy in use of water in Cali-
fornia, 321.
Egypt, an arid country, 15.
Egypt, pumping in, 254, 255.
Electric current metres, 89-97.
Electric power used in pumping,
212.
El Paso, Tex., irrigation near, 381.
El Paso, Tex., Rio Grande at, 347,
348.
Embudo, N. Mex., Rio Grande at,
64-67.
England, sewage irrigation in, 278.
Erosion and sedimentation in ca-
nals, 141-148.
Essex Company, water-powers of,
263.
Europe, forests of, 15.
Europe, stream-pollution in, 277.
Evolution of water control, 112.
Evolution of water rights, 333.
Farm, arrangement under irriga-
tion, 220-224.
Fencing of public lands illegal, 48.
Fertilizing value of muddy waters,
148.
Floats, for measuring velocity of
water, 86-89.
Flooding for irrigation, 199-202.
Flooding in checks, 185-193.
Floods held in reservoirs, 149-178.
Florence, Ariz., irrigation near, 308.
Flowing wells, 246-253.
Fluctuations in water supply in
semiarid states, 364-373.
Fluctuations, periodic, of rivers, 62-
71-
Flume for measuring miner's inches,
125.
426
INDEX.
Flume, measurements of flow in
95- 96.
Flumes, 106.
Flumes and wooden pipes, 134-138
Flumes, for farm use, 184.
Foote, A. D., measuring box, 126,
127.
Foreign countries compared in
area, 301-303.
Forest, area of, by states, 55.
Forest protection and sheep graz-
ing, 38.
Forest reservations, 7.
Forest reservations, map of, 34.
Forestry Bureau, work of, 35.
Forests and woodlands, map of, 32.
Forests, extent of, 29.
Forests influence water supply,
393. 394-
Forests of arid region, 27-36.
Fort Bidwell, Cal., rainfall at, 18.
Fort Ellis, Mont., rainfall at, 18.
Fort Stanton, N. Mex., rainfall at,
18.
Fort Wingate, N. Mex., annual
rainfall at, 22.
Foundations for dams, 155.
Francis, James B., weir formula,
131-
Fresno, California, subirrigation,
211.
Fresno Canal, Cal., 326.
Fruit industry in California, 328.
Fruit trees, amount of water for,
217.
Furrow irrigation, 193-199.
Gage Canal, Cal., 327.
Gage Canal, water used by, 218.
Gallatin Valley, Mont., 340.
Gallon, defined, 83.
Galvanized iron pipe for subirriga-
tion, 212.
Garden irrigation, 384.
Garden, Kan., irrigation near, 372.
Gasolene for pumping, 270, 271.
Genessee River, N.Y., weir on, 98.
Geological Survey, hydrographic
work of, 80.
Geological Survey, mapping forest
reserves, 35.
Georgia, irrigation in, 391.
Georgia, negative artesian wells in,
247.
Georgia, reference to, 316.
Germany, comparison of area of,
3°i. 303-
Giant used in hydraulic work, 170.
Gila River, Ariz., 306-311.
Gila River, Ariz , fluctuations of, 63.
Gila River Indian reservation, irri-
gation of, 308.
Glacial lakes for reservoirs, 149.
Glauber's salt, 282.
Government should construct res-
ervoirs, 394.
Grade of canals, 141-148.
Grain, irrigation of, 195, 196.
Grand Junction, Col., 329.
Grand River, Col., 331.
Grazing land, area of, by states, 55.
Grazing land, extent of, 29.
Grazing lands, 36-49.
Grazing lands, map of, 39.
Grazing, large part of land valuable
only for, 82.
Grazing, the principal industry of
the arid regions, 29.
Great American Desert, 365.
rreat Basin, Nev., 342.
treat Interior Basin, location 0^59.
Ireat Plains, Artesian conditions,
373-376.
ireat Plains, artesian wells of, 248.
ireat Plains, earth dams on, 166.
Ireat Plains, surveys adapted to,
10.
reat Plains, underflow of, 230-232.
reat Salt Lake, deserts near, 27.
reat Salt Lake, Utah, 356-358.
reat Salt Lake, Utah, deserts near,
56-
INDEX.
427
Great Salt Lake, Utah, drainage to,
59-
Greeley, Col., 329.
Green River, Col., 331.
Green River, Utah, 357.
Green River, Wyo., 363.
Ground sluicing, 170-173.
Ground water, rise of, 222.
Hamey Valley, Or., 353.
Harrisburg, Pa., Susquehanna
River at, 67, 68.
Headgates, 115-119.
Hemet Dam, 317.
High Plains, climate of, 17.
Hitchcock, Ethan Allen, report by,
396-405.
Home-making, importance of, I.
Homestead law, purpose of, 7.
Humboldt River, Nev., 345.
Humboldt sink, desert near, 56.
Humid regions, irrigation in, 383-
392-
Humid regions, map of, 14.
Hydrant irrigation, 207-212.
Hydraulic dams, 170-173.
Hydraulic works for cleaning res-
ervoirs, 158, 159.
Hydrography, Division of, 80.
Idaho, irrigation in, 333-338.
Illinois, proportion of land culti-
vated, 52.
Improved land, area of, by states,
55-
Impulse wheels for pumping, 259,
260.
India, pumping in, 254.
Indian irrigation methods, 182.
Indian reservations, 7.
Indian reservations, location of,
33. 34-
Industrial depression, opportunities
during, 8.
Integration, method of measure-
ment, 96.
Interior, Secretary of, 396-405.
Iowa, proportion of land cultivated,
S2.
Ireland, comparison of area of, 302.
Irrigable lands, map of, 54.
Irrigating season, water used dur-
ing, 214.
Irrigation district law of California,
319.
Irrigation, importance to citizen, 2.
Irrigation, importance to farmer, 2.
Irrigation methods, 179-224.
Irving, W., estimates of water used,
218.
Italian gardeners, 391.
Italian module, 122.
Italy, comparison of area of, 301-
3°3-
James River Valley, So. Dak., 374.
James River Valley, So. Dak., arte-
sian wells of, 248-252.
Johnson, Willard D., data from, 52.
Jordan River, Utah, 356.
Jumbo windmills, 266.
Kansas, irrigation in, 379-380.
Kansas subirrigation system, 209.
Kansas, waves of settlement in,
367-
Kansas, western, dry farming in, 49.
Kansas, western, in subhumid belt,
13-
Kern River, Cal., 319, 320.
King, F. H., experiments by, 213.
King River, Cal., 326.
La Grange, CaL, dam, 159-161.
Lake McMillan, N. Mex., 350.
Lake Tahoe, Nev., 345.
Land Office, guarding forest re-
serves, 35.
Land office lines on map, 153.
Lateral ditches, use of, 200, 222.
Lava plains of Or., 351-353.
Law of irrigation, 286-298.
428
INDEX.
Lawrence, Kan., rainfall at, 20-21.
Lawrence, Mass., water-power at,
262.
Least amount of water used, 216.
Levees for irrigating, 185-193.
Levelling a ditch line, 105, 106.
Le'velling device, 106.
Levelling the ground, 192.
Lewiston, Id., 338.
Licenses for grazing, 44.
Lining of canals, 139-141.
Litigation over water rights, 287.
Los Angeles, Cal., 314.
Los Angeles, Cal., charge for water
near, 327.
Los Angeles, Cal., method of irriga-
tion near, 204.
Los Angeles, Cal., pumping at, 264.
Los Angeles, Cal., wells near, 322.
Los Angeles River, Cal., underflow
of, 235-241.
Los Angeles River, Cal., 325.
Louisiana, irrigation in, 391.
Lowell, Mass., experiments at, 131.
Lowell, Mass., water-power at, 262.
Lower Otay Dam, Cal., 164.
Madison, Wis., experiments at, 213.
Majordomo, or superintendent,
349-
Malarial conditions, 281.
Malheur River, Or., 352, 353.
Maricopa Indians, water for, 308.
Market for goods in West, 2.
Markets for products, 406.
Maryland, population of, 316.
Masonry dams, 159-162.
Massachusetts, proportion of land
cultivated, 52.
Meade artesian wells, 379.
Measuring devices or modules, 120-
134-
Mediterranean countries, arid, 15.
Merced River, Cal., canal from, 139.
Merrimac River, Mass., water-
power on, 262, 263.
Meters, for measuring velocity of
water, 89-97.
Methods of irrigation, 179-224.
Mexico, arid regions in, 14.
Mexican irrigation methods, 182,
187, 189.
Mexican methods in New Mexico,
346-349.
Milk River, Mont., 340.
Miner's inch defined, 122-130.
Miner's inch irrigates several acres,
217.
Minneapolis, Minnesota, Mr.
Roosevelt at, 403.
Mississippi River, large drainage
area, 57.
Mississippi River, upper, run-off of,
58.
Mississippi Vallry, irrigation in,
Mississippi Valley, level land in,
10.
Mississippi Valley, land laws de-
signed for, 9.
Mississippi Valley, plains of, 17.
Missouri River in Montana, 339-
34°.
Missouri River in North Dakota,
371.
Missouri River, run-off of, 58.
Modesto Canal, Cal., 160, 161.
Modules, for measuring water, 120-
134-
Mohave Desert, 313.
Montana, irrigation in, 338-341.
Montana, miner's inch in, 129.
Montana, use of water in, 214.
Morena Dam, Cal., 164.
Mormons in Idaho, 335.
Mormons in Utah, 354-358.
Mortgages, speculation in 367-
369.
Mot, pumping water by, 256.
Moxee Valley, Wash., 360.
Moxee Valley, Wash., artesian wells
in, 252.
Muddy waters in canals, 141-148,
INDEX.
429
Nebraska, irrigation in, 377-379.
Nebraska, western, in subhumid
belt, 13.
Nevada, irrigation in, 341-346.
Nevada, lakes of, 59.
Nevada, proportion of land culti-
vated, 52.
New England, irrigation in, 391.
New England, rivers of, 69.
New Jersey, irrigation in, 391.
New Mexico, irrigation methods
in, 189.
New Mexico, irrigation in, 346-350.
New York, irrigation near, 391.
Night irrigation, 220.
Nitrifying organisms, 181.
North Dakota, irrigation in, 376.
North Dakota, in subhumid belt,
13-
Northern Pacific land grant, 7.
Northern Pacific railway hydraulic
fills, 173.
Ogden River, Utah, 356.
Ogden Valley, Utah, return waters
in, 227, 228.
Ohio River, run-off, 58, 59.
Ohio valley, level lands of, 10.
Oklahoma, irrigation in, 380.
Oklahoma, in subhumid belt, 13.
Ontario, Cal., charge for water at,
327-
Oranges in California, 328.
Orchard irrigation, 321.
Orchards and vineyards, irrigation
of, 202-206.
Oregon, dry farming in, 49.
Oregon, irrigation in, 350-353.
Oregon wagon-road grants, 7.
Orient, trade with, 406.
Otay Dam, 317.
Otay Dam, Cal., 164.
Outlet from flume, 203.
Outlets for dams, 167.
Outlets for small reservoirs, 169,
170.
Pacific, winds from, 16.
Pacoima Wash, Cal., underflow of
238.
Palouse River, Wash., 360.
Panhandle of Texas, 380.
Papago Indians, water economy
by, 45-
Papago Indians, water for, 308.
Paris, sewage irrigation, 277.
Pataha River, Wash., 360.
Payette River, Id., 324-328.
Pecos River, N. Mex., 347-350.
Pennsylvania, reference to, 316.
Percolation through dams, 166.
Periodic fluctuations of rivers, 62-
71-
Permits for grazing, 48.
Petroleum for pumping, 324.
Philippine Islands, comparison of
area of, 301-303.
Phoenix, Ariz., irrigation near, 304,
307, 310-
Phoenix, Ariz., sewage irrigation,
278.
Pima Indians, water for, 308.
Pioneer conditions, 108.
Pioneer conditions of settlement, 9.
Pioneers, neglected best opportu-
nities, 75.
Pipe irrigation, 207-212.
Placer mining, 170-173.
Plainfield, N. J., irrigation, 278.
Plane of saturation, 225.
Plants, water required by, 4, 180.
Platte River, Neb., 377-379.
Pole floats, 89.
Pool irrigation, 204.
Portugal, population of, 317.
Precipitation, 16-27.
Prescott, Ariz., rainfall at, 20.
Priorities, law of, 291-293.
Priorities to use of stored waters,
177.
Priority of right, 109, 113.
Private capital in irrigation, 398.
Promontory, Utah, rainfall at, 18.
430
INDEX.
Prosperity follows reclamation, 2.
Public land states, extent of, 28.
Public land, system of survey, 9.
Public land, utilized by irrigation, 2.
Public lands, extent of, i.
Public lands, location of, 5.
Public lands, reclamation of, i.
Puddled core of dams, 166.
Puddling the bottoms of reservoirs,
168.
Pueblo Indians in New Mexico,
346.
Puget Sound, excessive rainfall of,
26.
Pullman, Wash., 360.
Pumping by petroleum, 324.
Pumping in humid states, 389.
Pumping water, 254-271.
Quantity of water used in irrigation,
214.
Rain-belters, 367.
Rainfall increasing or diminishing,
366.
Rainfall, map of mean annual, 24.
Rainfall, mean monthly, 18.
Rainfall, not decreasing, 23.
Rainier National Park, location of,
33-
Raised ditches, 183.
Reclamation of public lands, I.
Rectangular weir, 131.
Redlands, Gal., 323, 327.
Register for weir, 134.
Regulation of water supply, no.
Regulators, 115-119.
Reserved areas, extent of, 6.
Reservoirs, 149-178.
Reservoirs should be built by
government, 394-405.
Reservoirs, units of capacity of, 83.
Return waters, 226-229.
Rice irrigation, 382, 391.
Rights to water, 286-298.
Rio Grande in Colorado, 331.
Rio Grande in New Mex., 347-349.
Rio Grande in Texas, 381.
Rio Grande, international charac-
ter of, 80.
Rio Grande, irrigation along, 187.
Rio Grande, N. Mex., fluctuations
of, 64-67.
Rio Grande, sediment from, 144.
Riparian rights, 289.
Riparian rights in East, 388, 389.
Riverside, Cal., 314.
Riverside, Cal., 323, 326.
Riverside, Cal., water used at, 218.
River systems of United States, 57.
Rivers, not diminishing in volume,
71-
Rock-filled dams, 162-166.
Rocky Mountain foothills, sub-
humid regions reaching, 13.
Rocky Ford, Col., 329.
Rocky Mountains, effect on cli-
mate, 17.
Rocky Mountain, waters diverted
across, 178.
Rocky Mountains, waters from, 60.
Rod floats, 89.
Roosevelt, Theodore, President's
message, 393-396.
Run-off, map of mean annual, 25.
Run-off, relation to rainfall, 27.
Russell, Prof. Israel C., work by,
360.
Sacramento River, 312.
Sacramento River, location of, 61.
Sacramento Valley, wheat fields of,
318.
Salt Lake, Utah, annual rainfall at,
22.
Salt River, Ariz., 305-311.
Salton Desert, waste land of, 27.
San Antonio, Tex., irrigation at,
381.
San Bernardino, Cal., 314.
San Bernardino, Cal., wells near,
322.
INDEX.
43 I
San Bernardino Valley, Cal., water
supply 01, 325.
San Carlos Dam, Ariz., 401.
San Carlos, Ariz., proposed reser-
voir near, 309.
Sand hills in Nebraska, 378.
Sandy soils free from alkali, 285.
San Diego, Cal., 314, 316.
San Diego, Cal., dams near, 164.
San Diego, Cal., rainfall at, 18.
San Diego Flume Company, Cal.,
219.
San Fernando Valley, Cal., under-
flow of, 235-241.
San Francisco, Cal., rainfall of, 18.
20.
San Gabriel River, Cal., 325, 326.
San Joaquin River, 312.
San Joaquin River, location of,
61.
San Joaquin Valley, Cal., pumping
in, 212.
San Joaquin Valley, wheat fields
of, 318.
San Joaquin Valley canals, 319.
San Joaquin Valley, Cal., artesian
wells in, 252.
San Luis Valley, Col., artesian basin,
252.
.San Luis Valley, Col., 331.
Santa Ana Canal, Cal., 141.
Santa Ana River, Cal., 325.
Santa Fe, N. Mex., rainfall at, 18,
22.
Santa Fe, N. Mex., hydraulic dam,
173-
Saturation of subsoil, 215.
Scarcity of water, 109.
Second, as unit of time, 82.
Second-foot of water irrigates 100
acres, 214.
Second-foot, denned, 83.
Sediment in reservoirs, 156-159.
Sedimentation in canals, 141-148.
Seepage, 72^79.
Seepage, rate of, 76.
Seepage in East, 388.
Seepage waters, 226-229.
Selection of land, denned, 9.
Semiarid region, states of, 364-
382.
Semiarid regions, map of, 14.
Sewage irrigation, 275-281.
Shadoofs, pumping by, 255.
Sheep causing silt, 148.
Sheep destroying the grazing lands,
43-
Sheep grazing, 36-49.
Sheridan, Wyo., 362.
Shoshone Falls, Id., 336.
Side-hill irrigation, 204, 205.
Sierra Nevada, 313.
Sierra Nevada, plains east of, 17.
Sierra Nevada, rivers from, 317.
Silt, accumulation of, 46.
Silt in canals, 141-148.
Silt in reservoirs, 156-159.
Silvies River, Or., 352.
Siphons, 136-138.
Sky Line ditch, Col., 178.
Small farms in California, 323.
Small farms of Utah, 274.
Snake River, Id., 324-328.
Snake River, Wash., 360.
Sod covering for reservoir banks,
170.
Sodium compounds in alkali, 282.
Solomonville, Ariz., 307.
Sorghum in dry regions, 369.
South Carolina, reference to, 316.
South Dakota, artesian wells of,
248-251.
South Dakota, irrigation in, 376,
377-
South Dakota, in subhumid belt, 13.
Southern Pacific Railroad in Ne-
vada, 344.
South Platte River, Col., 330-332.
Spain, comparison of area, 301-303,
315. 3i6.
Spain, map of, 315, 316.
State engineer, duties of, 297.
432
INDEX.
State engineers, duties of, HI.
St. Anthony, Id., subirrigation at,
211.
Steam-power for pumping, 270, 271.
Steel core dams, 164.
St. Lawrence, drainage of, 57.
St. Mary River, Mont., diversion of,
340-
Storage of floods, 394.
Stored waters, 173-178.
Stream measurement, importance
of, 79-72.
Stream measurements, methods of,
82-101.
Subhumid or semiarid defined, 364.
Subirrigation, 207-212.
Submerged dam, 234.
Submerged float, 88.
Subsurface irrigation, 207-212.
Sunnyside Canal, Wash., 359.
Surface waters, 57-101.
Survey, system for, 9.
Suspended car for measuring
river, 93-95.
Susquehanna River, Pa., fluctua-
tions of, 67, 68.
Sweetwater Dam, 317.
Sweetwater River, Wyo., 362-363.
Sweetwater system, Cal., 219.
Sweetwater system, Cal. duty of
water, 328.
Switzerland, comparison of area of,
302.
Tag wire, 93, 94.
Tanks of earth, 166-170.
Tappoons, 197, 198.
Tehachapi Pass, 317.
Tehachapi Pass, 313.
Tejunga Wash, Cal., underflow of,
238.
Texas, extent of, 312.
Texas, irrigation in, 380-382,
Texas, " pan handle," in subhumid
belt, 13.
Texas, rice irrigation, 391.
Tile used for irrigation, 210.
Timber dams, 165.
Titles to water, importance of, 12.
Tonto Basin, 307.
Topographic maps of forest re-
serves, 35.
Township, defined, 9.
Trapezoidal weir, 132-134.
Trees, amount of water for, 217.
Truckee River, Nev., 343-345.
Tucson, Ariz., overgrazing near,
44- 46-
Tunnels, 138-139.
Tunnels for obtaining water, 322.
Tuolumne River, La Grange dam
on, 159-161.
Turbim windmills, 266.
Turlock Canal, Cal., hydraulic cut
on, 173.
Turlock Canal, Cal., 160, 161.
Turlock Canal, Cal., tunnel on, 139.
Twin Falls, Id., 336, 337.
Typhoid, from well water, 243.
Underflow, 229-241.
Underflow dam, 234.
Underflow waters cut by tunnels,
322.
Underground waters, 225-253.
Underground waters to be de-
veloped, 402.
Union Pacific land grant, 7.
Unita Mountains, waters from, 60.
United States, map of arid regions
of, 14.
Units of measurement, 83, 84.
Utah, irrigation in, 353-358.
Utah Lake, Utah, 356-358.
Utah, priorities of right in, 293.
Utah, proportion of land cultivated,
52.
Utah, small farms of, 274.
Velocity in canals, 141-148.
Velocity, methods of measuring,
86-97.
INDEX.
433
Verde River, Ariz., 305, 306.
Vineyard irrigation, 321.
Vineyards, irrigation of, 202-206.
Walker Lake, deserts near, 56.
Walker River, Nev., 343-345.
W'allawalla River, Wash., 360.
Wallawalla, Wash., rainfall at, 18.
Walnut Gun Dam, Ariz., failure of,
163.
Wasatch Mountains, Utah, 354.
Wasatch Mountains, waters from,
60.
Washington, city of, water supply,
276.
Washington, dry farming in, 49.
Washington, irrigation in, 358-361.
Washington, state of, excessive
rainfall of, 26.
Waste of water, 216.
Wasteway for dams, 167.
Watchman at canal head, 117.
Water as a plant food, 4, 180, 385.
Water, amount applied in irriga-
tion, 212-220.
Water boxes from ditches, 184, 186.
Watering by furrows, 193-199.
Water, its importance, 3.
Watermaster, 107, 114.
Water meters, 122.
Water power, data for, 80.
Water-power for pumping, 258-
265.
Water storage requirements, 150-
156.
Water supply, amount by states, 55.
Water supply governs values, 10.
Water supply, importance to de-
velopment, 81.
Water table, raising of, 215, 225.
Water, weight of, 213.
Water wheels as meters, ico, 101.
Water-wheel for pumping, 258-265.
Waters underground, 225-253.
Weather, changes of, 26.
Weather, denned, 16.
Weber River, Utah, 356.
Weeds in canals, 146-148.
Weirs, 97-101.
Weirs, for measurement, 122.
Weirs, various forms of, 130-134.
Weiser River, Id., 324-328.
Well irrigation, 209.
Wells in California, 321.
Wells, ordinary forms, 241-246.
Well-sweep, pumping by, 257.
Wheat in California, 318.
Wheat in North Dakota, 376.
Wheat in Utah, 354.
Wheat in Washington, 359.
Wheat, raised by dry farming, 49-
51-
Wheatland, Wyo., 363.
Windbreaks on the plains, 370.
Windmills, 265-270.
Windmills on the plains, 369-370.
Windmills pumping into earth
tanks, 167.
Wooden pipes, 134-138.
Woodland, area of, by states, 55.
Woodland, extent of, 29.
Woonsocket, So. Dak., artesian
wells at, 251.
World, map of arid regions of, 15.
Wyoming, irrigation in, 361-363.
Wyoming water laws, in.
Wyoming, water rights in, 297.
Yakima River, Wash., 359-360.
Yellowstone National Park, loca-
tion of, 33.
Yellowstone River, Mont., 339-340
Yuma, Ariz., rainfall at, 18.
Zanja, defined, 107.
Zanjero, 107.
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