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UNIVERSAL

PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY

BIOGRAPHY

AND

MYTHOLOGY

BY J. THOMAS, A.M., M.D.,

ATTHOK OF

THE SYSTEM OF PRONUNCIATION IN " LIPPINCOTT S PRONOUNCING GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD,
AND OF THE PRONOUNCING VOCABULARIES OF BIOGRAPHICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
NAMES IN "WEBSTER S UNABRIDGED DICTIONARY."

VOL. I.

PHILADELPHIA:

J. B. LIPPINCOTT AND CO.

1870.

&lt;^

&gt;

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by
J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO.,

In the Clerk s Office of the District Court of the United States for the
Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

PREFACE.

THE plan of the present work differs in several important respects from that of any other
biographical dictionary which has yet been offered to the public. In its preparation the aim
has been to produce a convenient and complete book of reference, both for Mythology and
Biography, one which in all essential respects should, if possible, be fully equal to the best
biographical dictionaries in the language, and include, in addition, succinct notices of all the
more important subjects of the Norse and Hindoo, as well as of Classic, Mythology, with THE
CORRECT PRONUNCIATION of the various names. In order to accomplish these objects, and
at the same time confine the work within reasonable limits, great attention has been given
to the condensation as well as to the proper selection of the different articles. That the work,
moreover, may combine, as far as practicable, completeness with brevity, to the more im
portant notices have been added ample bibliographical references,* indicating to the reader
the sources whence he can obtain the fullest information respecting any person in whom he
may chance to feel a particular interest.

Among the peculiar features of the present work, that of the pronunciation of the names
may justly claim the first place, both on account of its intrinsic importance, and because (so
far as we are aware) this is the first time that anything of the kind has ever been attempted
in any work on general biography.

The utility pf such a feature (if thoroughly carried out) would seem to be too obvious
to require any argument. Its great importance, however, can only be fully appreciated by
those who like teachers or public speakers have learned by large experience the exceeding
inconvenience arising from the want of a standard for the pronunciation of modern names.

In pronouncing modern proper names there are only three courses which can by any
possibility be pursued : ist. To blunder over or pronounce them at random, like a barbarian
who should attempt to speak a language of which he knows nothing ; 2dly. To endeavour
to pronounce all names, foreign as well as English, according to the principles of our own lan
guage, giving each letter its proper English sound ; or, lastly, To adopt the system of pronun
ciation now generally recognized by the more highly educated classes not only in England and
America, but also in Germany and most other parts of Europe that is, to pronounce all
names, as nearly as possible, as they are pronounced by the well-educated people of the dif
ferent countries to which such names belong, with the exception of those very few celebrated
names, such as CALVIN, CERVANTES, GALILEO, LUTHER, NAPOLEON, PETRARCH, etc.,
which may be said to have acquired an established English pronunciation.

Respecting the first method if method it can be called we need not waste our own or
the reader s time in pointing out its absurdity. As to the second, although at the first glance
it may have an appearance of plausibility, we shall find, if we scan it attentively, that for all
practical purposes it is little, if any, better than the first. A few examples will suffice
to show the utter absurdity of attempting to pronounce foreign names according to the

* The only exceptions to this statement, of any consequence, will be found under the notices of living persons,
of whom, generally speaking, there are either no published biographies or else such only as are very defective and
unsatisfactory.

iv PREFACE.

English sounds of the letters.* How, for example, should we pronounce the name of the
celebrated German poet HEINE, according to such a system ? Should the ei be sounded like
ee, as in the English words seize, ceiling, etc.? or like long a, as in vein, -weight, inveigh?
or like long /, as in height, sleight, etc.? Should HEINE then be pronounced hecn, hdn, or
hin? or should we sound the final c, and make it hee ne, hd ne, or hl ne? Or take, if you
choose, another name, equally well or better known that of SCHILLER. Now, the proper
English sound of sch is sk, as in school, scholar, schooner, etc. We have no genuine English
word in which sch has the sound of sh,\ although we have some, as schism, schismatic, etc.,
in which it sounds like simple s. Yet would any one in his senses seriously advocate
pronouncing the name of Germany s most popular poet either as Skil ler or Siller ? Innu
merable instances, moreover, occur, in which it is very difficult, if not impossible, to pronounce
the names of other countries according to the English sounds of the letters, as BJORNSON,
CZAJKOWSKI, etc., although there is not the slightest difficulty in pronouncing them according
to the sounds of the languages to which they belong. A multitude of instances also occur
in which the English mode of pronouncing, though not difficult, would be far less euphonious
than the native pronunciation. CAGLIARI (kal ya-ree) and BORGOGNONE, (boR-gon-yo na,)
two distinguished painters of Italy, and CARVALHO, (kaR-val yo,) a Portuguese bibliographer,
may serve as examples. Another insuperable difficulty in the way of pronouncing many for
eign names according to the sounds of our own tongue arises from the fact that in some lan
guages the same sound is often represented by different letters. Thus, oe and o in German
are sounded precisely alike ; hence, GOETHE and GOTHE should clearly have the same
pronunciation. Again, the Spanish j and x are, in sound, exactly equivalent to each other :
therefore, CARAVAJAL and CARAVAXAL should be pronounced exactly alike. So also the
Portuguese ch and x, having the same sound (that of our sJi), were formerly often interchanged,
as in the names XAVES or CHAVES,| XINGU or CHINGU, XOA or CHOA, (written in English,
SHOA, etc.) Innumerable examples of this kind might be adduced. It must be obvious, even
to the least intelligent mind, that the attempt to pronounce names so differently written
according to the English sounds of the letters would lead to endless confusion.

The only rational course then left for us is to adopt the third method noticed above, and to
pronounce modern names, as nearly as possible, as they are pronounced by the inhabitants
of the respective countries to which such names belong. It is admitted that cases not unfre-
quently occur in which it is impossible to convey, with any great degree of precision, the
pronunciation of foreign sounds by means of English letters ; but something is undoubtedly
gained by such an approximation to the true sound as would enable one more readily to
understand, and to be understood by, those who are familiar with names as spoken in their
proper tongue. Nor are the obstacles in the way of acquiring such a pronunciation nearly
so great, even for the ordinary English scholar, as at first sight might appear. Take, for
example, the various names which occur in the histories and biographies of modern Italy.
In all the countless thousands of those names (whether of persons or places) there is not a
single vowel or consonant sound which has not its exact equivalent, or something very near
it, in our own language ; and, consequently, not one which, if properly explained, an
Englishman or American could not pronounce with ease. Though, to one unacquainted
with the language, many of the names may have, when written, an uncouth and even
formidable appearance, there is nothing uncouth or formidable in the sounds which they
represent. Again, in the fifty thousand or more names of Spain and Spanish America
there is only one sound (that of j or x) which presents any real difficulty to the English

* The celebrated Charles James Fox is said to have favoured such a system. It is probable, however, that he
merely proposed to Anglicize the pronunciation of well-known foreign names somewhat more generally than is
customary. He could hardly have intended to apply the principles of English pronunciation to all foreign names,
without exception.

t All words of this kind, as schist, schorl, are clearly of foreign origin, and of recent introduction into our language.

\ In old books instances of this kind are very frequent, but at present the Spaniards nearly always use/, (not x,)
the Portuguese, ch, (not x,} except in a few words and names of foreign origin, and the Germans, &lt;v, (not &lt;v.)
But, as the English and French still very frequently employ x for /in writing Spanish, so they generally make use
of oe instead of o in writing German names.

PREFACE. v

speakcr, and this corresponds almost exactly to the sound of the German ch in such words
as ach, nach, dock, etc. For those, therefore, who may have already acquired the elements
of German pronunciation even this difficulty would be wholly removed. The names of
Portugal or Portuguese America (Brazil) are scarcely more formidable than those of Italy.
There is, indeed, only one sound * (that of m or ao} unknown to our language, and this is
by no means difficult to acquire. So that by learning two foreign sounds an Englishman
or American will be enabled, if the pronunciation be properly marked, to pronounce, with
tolerable correctness, all the myriads of names belonging to Italy, Portugal, Spain, Brazil,
and Spanish America. With regard to French, the case is, we admit, very different; but, as
an offset to the inherent difficulties of this language, we have the fact that it is more univer
sally studied than any other ; so that if one is really desirous of mastering its peculiar sounds
he will at least be pretty sure to find near at hand every needful aid for doing so.

Persons who view the different European languages separately are apt to regard the
mastering of the difficult sounds in all as a far more formidable task than it really is. They
forget that a large proportion of the most difficult sounds are common to several different
languages. For example, the French and Dutch u is equivalent to the German and Hun
garian ?&gt; , and to the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish y. Here it will be seen that the same
sound (and that one of the most difficult for an Englishman to acquire) occurs in seven dif
ferent languages. Again, the German 6 or oe is found in Hungarian, Danish, Norwegian,
and Swedish, and nearly corresponds to one of the most difficult of the French and Dutch
sounds, that of en in the Dutch words brctik, reuk, or in the French leur, pci/r, etc.
The German ch, as already remarked, corresponds almost exactly to the Spanish j or x,
and is essentially the same as the modern Greek /, the Russian x, the Polish, Scottish, and
Welsh ch, and the Dutch g.\

The acquisition of ten or twelve new sounds, which might be learned by persons of
ordinary aptitude in a few hours, would enable any one who can read correctly the pro
nunciation of English words, as marked in Walker s, Webster s, or Worcester s Dictionary,
to pronounce with tolerable correctness all the names of Portugal, Spain, Italy, France,
Belgium, Holland, Germany, Denmark, Norway, and (we might perhaps add) of Sweden,
Russia, and Hungary.

In another part of the work will be given a full and particular explanation of the system
of orthoepy which has been adopted, and of the method pursued in order to insure the
greatest attainable accuracy. It may, however, be proper to say here, that the author, fully
sensible that the value of this most important feature (the pronunciation of the names) must
depend almost entirely on the thoroughness and accuracy with which it is carried out, has
spared neither time, labour, nor expense in order to render it as perfect as possible.
Particular attention has been given to what may be termed the five principal languages of
Continental Europe namely, the Italian, French, German, Spanish, and Russian. In regard
to the French especially, this being by far the most important of all, both on account of its
being so widely spoken, and on account of the inherent difficulty of the sounds to be repre
sented, the utmost pains have been taken not only to ascertain the correct pronunciation,
but to mark it so fully and clearly that any intelligent person who has once acquired the
elementary sounds of the language, and made himself acquainted with our system of
notation, may pronounce with facility and with tolerable accuracy whatever name he may
have occasion to speak. As already observed, the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese names
are comparatively easy for the English or American learner. Those of Germany are not
very formidable, for although the German vowel sounds are more difficult than the Italian,
the similarity of accent that exists between the German and our own tongue is an important
help to us in acquiring the correct German pronunciation. Of the five languages above
named, the Russian is undoubtedly the most difficult ; but in overcoming the essential diffi-

* There are one or two other sounds, such as the diphthongs on and ei, (or ey,) which, though having no exact
equivalent in English, yet differ so slightly from some of our sounds, and, we may add, are so easy to acquire, that
for practical purposes they may be said to form no exception to the above statement.

t The same sound occurs in Arabic and Persian, besides many other languages.

vi PREFACE.

culties of the lan&lt;nia-e, the author has had the assistance of some of the best Russian scholars

O O

in Europe ; and he has reason to hope that the pronunciation of the Russian names contained
in this work will be found not only generally correct in regard to the accent, (perhaps the
most important point of all,) but sufficiently accurate in other respects for all practical
purposes.

As the Russian Empire unites Asia with Europe, so the language of Russia may be said
to form, in one sense, the connecting link between the Oriental and European tongues. The
names belonging to the other languages of Europe are all written either with Roman letters,
or in characters, like the German and modern Greek, which can readily be converted into
corresponding Roman letters ; and the mode of writing such names is, with very few excep
tions, the same in all the various European languages ; for example, MAZZINI, the name of
the renowned Italian patriot, is not only the Italian, but the English, French, German, Dutch,
Danish, Swedish, and Spanish name of the same person ; in like manner, the name of the
celebrated French philosopher, DESCARTES, will be found to be invariably written with the
same letters in all the modern languages of Western and Southern Europe ; so also the
name of SCHII.LER, the illustrious German poet, is spelled alike in Italian, French, Spanish,
German, etc. ; for though in the last-named language it is usually (but by no means univer
sally) written in German characters, (cfyiOer,) yet as these exactly correspond to the Roman
letters usually employed in spelling the name, the difference is only apparent, not essential.
Russian names, on the contrary as they (like all Oriental names) are neither written in
Roman letters nor in characters which can be converted into corresponding Roman letters
are spelled ACCORDING TO THE SOUND, the writers of the different nations seeking to indicate
the pronunciation of the name in the manner which to them seems most proper. Thus the
name of one of the most distinguished Russian poets is written in English DERZHAVIN, in
French DERJAVINE, and in German DERSCHAWIN, each spelling being intended to repre
sent the sound of the name according to the different languages ; so likewise the name of
another celebrated Russian poet is written in English POOSIIKIN or PUSHKIN, in French
POUCHKINE or POUCHEKINE, and in German PUSCIIKIN ; each of these different modes being
intended to represent exactly the same pronunciation. It is curious to observe that the
Russians adopt precisely the same rule in writing foreign names ; that is, they spell them
(with a few exceptions) according to the sound, without attempting to follow the letters
of the original spelling ; thus, they would write JBordo for Bordeaux, Dzhonson* for John
son, Davoo for DAVOUST, Roosso for ROUSSEAU, Chimaroza^ for CIMAROSA, Chartoriskee\
for CZARTORYSKI, etc. ; in the same manner as a Frenchman might write Ouachiutonn
for WASHINGTON, (as Volney actually does,) Chcqucspir for SHAKESPEARE, and so on.
(See " Reiff s Russian Grammar," pp. 167, 168.)

There is perhaps no branch of pronunciation attended with so many difficulties as that of
Oriental names. One great source of perplexity arises from there being in our language no
uniform and established system for writing such names. French and German writers, for the
most part, adhere pretty strictly to the rule referred to above that is, they try to represent
as nearly as possible the sound of the name in their own language. The French write the
name of the celebrated Mongol conqueror of the thirteenth century, DJENGUIS, or DJENGUYZ.
The Germans write it DSCHENGIS ; and both give the sound of the name, as nearly as it can
be done, in their own tongue. The French have no other way of representing the sound of
our_/ (a very common sound in the Oriental languages) than by Dj or Dg. The Germans
represent the same sound in the best way they can, but very imperfectly, by Dsch. In the
second syllable of the above name the French use zi after g, to make this consonant hard
before e, /, or y. If the u were omitted, the^ (being before c) must necessarily, according to

* They have no single letter to represent our/, but one which is exactly equivalent to our zh.

t They represent the sound of our ch by a single character, \,

\ As we are unable to give the Russian letters, we give the nearest equivalent.

See Volney s " Tableau du Climat et du Sol des Etats-Unis d Amerique," (2 vols., Paris, 1803,) where the reader
will also find WAYNE spelled Ouayne ; WILLIAMS written Ouilliams ; RUSH, (Dr.,) Roche; GREEN BRIER, Grlm-
bra iar ; WORCESTER, Onorcester, etc.

PREFACE. v jj

rules of the French tongue, have the sound of their j or our zh. But in German, as^is
always hard, they need use only the simplest form, (gis.) The sound of the name, however,
is represented much more simply and more perfectly in English by JENGIS or JENGIZ. Again :
the name of a celebrated Sultan of Syria and Egypt is written in French, NouR-ED-DiN
MAHMOUD, in German, NUR-ED-DIN-MAHMUD, and would be written in English, NOOR-
ED-DEEN-MAHMOOD. It should be observed that the French make no attempt to conform to
the German spelling, nor the Germans to the French ; but both nations adhere very generally
to the principles of their respective languages. Unfortunately, a large majority of English
writers, instead of conforming to a rule which has the double merit of being (in most
instances) simple and easy for the writer and perfectly intelligible to the reader, by sometimes
writing in the French and sometimes in the German or Italian mode, and not very unfre-
quently combining the two in the same name, have involved the department of Oriental
names in a confusion which is most perplexing to all, and is absolutely inextricable to those
who have not made it the subject of long and laborious study.*

Even if the mode of writing Oriental names according to the French and German letters
were equally intelligible to ordinary readers as the English mode, there would still be one
paramount argument in favour of the last viz. : the letters of our language are capable of
conveniently expressing or representing a greater variety of sounds than those of any other
European tongue. There is no sound much used either in Oriental or Russian names which
we cannot express as well as the French ; while there are several which we can express much
better than they ; and there are sounds perfectly familiar to our tongue which they cannot
express at all. Take, for example, the sound of oury, (which, as already intimated, is of verv
frequent occurrence in Asiatic names:) what we express by a single letter is indicated less
perfectly in their language by two dj. So also the sound of our ch, one of continual occur
rence both in the names of Asia and of Eastern Europe, is indicated in French by three letters
instead of our two, as Tchandra for CHANDRA, etc. It may be remarked that this sound,
as well as that of j, is one of the most common and familiar to the English tongue, while
both are foreign to the French language, since neither of them is to be found in any genuine
French word. Again : our iv expresses a sound (common in the Oriental languages) which
is not nearly so neatly nor so well expressed by the French ou. This defect in their language
is so obvious that some eminent French writers (Pauthrer, for example, in his works on
China) often make use of TV when they wish to represent the sound of our TV at the begin
ning of a name; e.g., WEN WANG not OUEN OUANG, as the strictly French mode of
writing would require. Lastly, there are sounds expressed in our language with perfect ease
which they cannot represent at all ; among them are the sounds of the Greek (th) and
&lt;J, (th ;) the first of these is of frequent occurrence, not only in modern Greek, but in Spanish
names.

With respect to the German language, there is, if we mistake not, but one frequently-
occurring sound in Oriental names (that of kh, indicated in German by cK) which can be
better represented in German than in English, while there are many which can not only be
more conveniently expressed in English, but much more correctly than in German. Thus,
the Germans employ four letters (dscJi) to indicate the sound of our y, and after all represent
it most imperfectly, as in the example of DSCHENGIS, (JENGIS,) noticed above. Their four
letters, tsch, do not represent correctly the sound of our c/z, nor does their sch convey even a
tolerable idea of our zh, (the sound of 5 m pleasure or occasion.) Like the French, they
have no letter or combination of letters equivalent to our w, nor can they in any manner
represent the sound of the modern Greek or cJ.

One mode of writing Oriental names, which has been recommended by several eminent
scholars, is to employ English consonants in conjunction with German or Italian vowels,
marked with certain accents in order to show their quantity or quality. Thus, a without the
accent represents the Italian a either short or obscure, a or d denotes the long Italian a, as in

* One great cause of this confusion undoubtedly arises from the fact that many English writers, in attempting
to translate works from the German and French, fail to translate the names. But such an omission could scarcely
occur if there was any generally-recognized system of writing such names.

viii PREFACE.

father, often approaching the sound of a in fall; c as in met or her; c or 6 as in fete or
there; i as in pin; i or / as in marine; o nearly as in opinion; 6 or 6 as in /w/e; ti as in j^/z
ovpull; u or *2 like 00 in moon. This method has the merit of combining brevity with pre
cision, and is well adapted to publications designed chiefly for the use of scholars ; but there
are serious, if not insuperable, objections to its general employment in English works intended
for popular perusal. While such works are printed under the immediate superintendence
of some competent linguist, they may, perhaps, answer every needful purpose ; but as soon
as they get into general and popular use, and require to be reprinted, the accents, as all ex
perience proves, will be dropped either through carelessness on the part of the printer, or,
what is more likely to occur, from a want of the proper kind of type. And let it be re
membered that the omission of the proper accent in such a case is equivalent to the omission
of a letter, with this great disadvantage, that the former error would be much less likely to
attract attention, and would therefore be less readily corrected.

Those accustomed to the study of languages can scarcely conceive the difficulty which
the unlearned experience in attempting to pronounce for the first time the letters of a foreign
tono-ue. Readers of this class would be almost sure to miscall such names as NUREDDIN
or NOUREDDIN, ABDUL MEJID or ABDOUL MEDJID, and a multitude of others, while they
could pronounce them without the slightest difficulty if written according to the English
sounds of the letters NOOR-ED-DEEN, ABDOOL MEJEED, etc. We admit that there are
many names which, in order to give a correct idea of their pronunciation, would require
some additional explanation besides merely writing them with English letters. But in a
realm where the intricacies are so perplexing and the obstacles so formidable as often to
bewilder and discourage the most intelligent, it is certainly no unworthy or useless task to
attempt to do all that can be done to smooth and straighten the paths and to remove every
unnecessary obstruction.

The rule adopted in the present work has been to give various spellings of every cele
brated Oriental name, whenever these spellings appeared to be sanctioned by any good
authority ; the biographical notice being given under the English spelling, which is placed
first in order.* Thus, in the name above cited, the English NOOR-ED-DEEN MAIIMOOD is
given first, to which are added the French NOUREDDIN (or NOUR-ED-DYN) MAHMOUD,
and the German NUREDDIN MAHMUD. So, also, the notice of the great Mongol conqueror,
referred to above, is given under the English spelling JENGIS, this being followed not only
by the French and German forms, (DjENGUiz and DSCHENGIS,) but by many others, it
being the rare fortune of this famous name to be written by respectable authorities in no
fewer than TWENTY different modes. In the proper alphabetical place of each of these
different spellings will be found a reference to that form of the name under which the
biographical notice is given. The only exceptions to the rule above indicated are those
very few names which appear to have acquired by universal (or almost universal) usage an
established form common to the different European languages ; as AVICENNA, (changed
from Ibn-Seend,} AVENZOAR, (Ibn-ZohrS) AVERROES, {Ibn-Roshd,} ELMACIN, (JBl-
Makccn or El-Making) SALADIN, (Sala-ed-Deen or Sala-cddin,} SOLYMAN, (of Turkey,
Sooleymdn^) etc.

The confusion which prevails in regard to the spelling of Oriental names is not, however,
the only cause of the difficulties with which this subject is surrounded. The character of the
Oriental languages, so different in many respects from those with which we are most familiar,
renders it often exceedingly difficult to indicate the pronunciation in a manner satisfactory to
the English reader. In order that he might, as far as possible, enjoy every needful facility
and aid in encountering the difficulties in question, the author deemed it necessary that he

* The only exception to this rule of any importance will be found in Mythological and other names from the
Sanscrit, which, like the Greek and Latin, may be regarded as a dead language ; the names occurring in it,
written according to the system established by Sir William Jones, (see page vii., near the bottom,) are pronounced
according to the spelling rather than the (modern) sound of the letters. At the same time, the modern Hindoo
pronunciation, when this appears to differ essentially from the pronunciation first given, has usually been added.
For illustration, see the articles on AGNI, BRAHMA, GARUDA, etc.

PREFACE. ix

should have some knowledge of those tongues besides what books alone could furnish. He
accordingly spent nearly two years in the East in studying the rudiments of several Asiatic
languages, (with particular reference to their pronunciation,) including the Arabic, Persian,
Sanscrit, and Hindostanee. The time and labour thus bestowed, he feels persuaded, have not
been spent in vain. He has, in consequence of this preparation, not only been enabled to
proceed with a surer step in representing the pronunciation of Asiatic and African names,
but he has also in many instances, by referring to the name as written in Arabic or Sanscrit,
been enabled to correct errors of greater or less importance in the prevalent European spell
ings of Oriental names.

Respecting the bibliographical references, it may be proper to remark that they are in
tended not so much to indicate the materials from which the preceding notice has been pre
pared, as to point out to the reader the sources whence he can obtain fuller information.
The works referred to will be found generally, but not always, to contain all the materials
used in the composition of the article to which the references are appended. Occasionally
an isolated fact or circumstance of minor importance, but yet of sufficient interest to make it
worth stating, may have been obtained from some source deemed good authority, to which,
nevertheless, our plan, requiring the utmost condensation, would not admit of a special refer
ence. Many of our facts, moreover, have been taken from the " Biographic Universelle," the
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale," BROCKHAUS S " Conversations-Lexikon," or other similar
works, when the article from which it is taken was too brief to make it worth while to
refer to it particularly. As a general rule, it has not been deemed expedient to make a
special reference to works like the above, unless the notice referred to extended to a page
or more. This rule would, of course, preclude a reference in nearly all cases in which the
subject of our notice is of minor importance. It would, however, be an error to infer that
the omission of all references is intended as any indication of mediocrity in the subjects of
our articles, more especially in regard to living characters, since, as has been already inti
mated, the materials for the biographies of living persons, however distinguished, are often
extremely meagre and defective. Nor would it be just to conclude that in all cases the
length of the different notices is designed to be a measure of the relative importance of the
individuals noticed, since he who has written many passable works may perhaps require a
longer notice than he who has produced a single work of superior merit. Other things
being equal, the man of action will almost of necessity occupy much more space than the
man of thought, although the latter may have perhaps far juster claims upon the esteem
and gratitude of mankind, and his glory may be as much more permanent as it is less daz
zling, and less fitted to win the admiration of the unthinking and fickle multitude.

It may be observed also that considerably less space, relatively speaking, has generally
been allotted to living persons than to those who are deceased ; not merely because it is
often much more difficult to obtain the necessary information in regard to the living, but
more especially because it behooves us to speak with great circumspection, whether in the
way of praise or censure, of those whose earthly career is still unfinished, and whose future
conduct may possibly redeem the errors or throw discredit on the virtues of their past life.*

The subjects of the Hindoo and Norse Mythologies have been treated somewhat more fully
in proportion to their relative importance than those of Classic Mythology, for the simple
reason that while one can find almost everywhere excellent works relating to the last, there
exists scarcely any book of convenient reference to which the ordinary reader can have re
course in order to satisfy his curiosity respecting the two former.

With respect to the relative length of the various articles there will of course be con
siderable diversity of opinion among different readers, according to their respective pursuits
and habits of thought. We are not, however, without hopes that the majority of candid

* Voltaire has well remarked : " On doit des egards aux vivants ; on ne doit aux morts qtie la verite" (" We owe
consideration to the living ; to the dead we owe only truth.") This consideration for the living was, indeed, formerly
deemed so important that, until the last half century, all works of reference of this kind systematically excluded the
biographies of living persons, however illustrious ; thus rejecting the very class in which perhaps a large majority

of readers feel the deepest interest.

X PREFA CE.

critics will admit that on the whole the space allotted to each notice has been apportioned
with a fair measure of justice and impartiality. Those who are familiar with works of this
kind cannot fail to have remarked that certain principles of perspective, so to speak, prevail
in history and biography as well as in the arts of design. No French historian or biographer
would treat the events or the actors of English history with the same fulness or minuteness
that an English writer would naturally employ in describing the same occurrences or per
sons. The same general remark, mutatis mutandis, will apply with equal truth to English,
German, or Italian writers of history and biography. As events are magnified in importance
by nearness of place, they are in like manner modified by nearness of time. Although the
author of the present work has felt himself justified in following principles so universally
recognized, and has accordingly given a greater prominence to the distinguished men of his
own country, and to those of recent times, than to individuals equally eminent among other
nations or living in a remote age, it has been his earnest aim not to allow this liberty to
degenerate into license. In regard to this and all similar questions respecting which there
are no clearly defined rules or authoritative precedents by which his course could be surely
guided, he feels that he may safely rely on the candour and intelligence of his critics, since
those whose opinion is most to be valued or feared will be most capable of appreciating the
inherent difficulties as well as the extraordinary labour involved in the preparation of such
a work.

To the following works on general biography we have been under especial obligations in
the preparation of this Dictionary :

1. MICHAUD S "Biographic Universelle," of which the first edition, (the publication of
which was begun in Paris in iSio,) with the supplement, has extended to nearly ninety vol
umes Svo, and has included among its contributors many of the most distinguished names in
French literature and science ; e.g., those of BIOT, CUVIER, DE SACY, GUIZOT, SISMONDI,
Madame DE STAEL, VII.LEMAIN, etc.

2. The " Nouvelle Biographic Generale," edited by Dr. J. C. F. HOEFER, and published
at Paris by Messrs. F. DIDOT Freres in forty-six volumes Svo, (1857-1866.) This is one of
the most valuable works on general biography to be found in any language. That portion
embracing the first twelve letters of the alphabet (i.e., from A to M, inclusive) exceeds in
completeness every other publication of the kind of which we have any knowledge. If
inferior to the " Biographie Universelle " .in the length and fulness of many of the memoirs,
it greatly surpasses that work in the number of its biographical notices ; and it possesses
two important additional recommendations first, of including the living as well as the dead,
and, secondly, of giving the reader valuable bibliographic information under almost every
article.

3. BROCKHAUS S " Conversations-Lexikon," in 16 volumes large Svo, (Leipsic, 1851-1855,)
which is especially full in regard to the distinguished men of the present century, and par
ticularly those of Germany ; also the annual continuation of that work, entitled " Jahrbuch
zum Conversations-Lexikon."

4. PIERER S " Universal-Lexikon," in 19 volumes, fourth (last) edition, greatly enlarged,
(Altenburg, 1857-1865.)

5. VAPEREAU S " Dictioanaire des Contemporains," (1858 et scq.,} important for the
information it gives respecting living persons.

6. ERSCII und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyclopiidie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste,"
145 vols. 410, (Leipsic, 1818-1869.) This great work has numbered among its contributors
several of the most eminent literary and scientific men of Germany.

Nor must we omit to notice, among the important works of general reference, the " Critical
Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors," by S. AUSTIN
ALLIBONE, to be completed in three volumes imperial Svo, of which two volumes
(1858-1870, pp. 2326) have already appeared ; and the il Dictionary of the United States Con
gress and the General Government, compiled as a Book of Reference for the American
People," by CHARLES LANMAN, (6th edition, 1869.)

PREFACE. xi

As this Dictionary of Biography and Mythology, comprising, as it does, distinguished indi
viduals of all ages and countries, must of necessity he extremely brief in regard to a large
majority of the notices, and especially those of persons belonging to foreign countries, and
as our plan does not admit of special bibliographical references, except under the more
important articles, it may not be without use to refer the reader to the following works on
NATIONAL biography :

In relation to the distinguished men of Denmark, Norway, etc., see KRAFT og NYERUP,
"Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon for Danmark, Norge og Island," (Copenhagen, 2 vols. 4to,
1820;) and T. H. ERSLEW, " Almindeligt Forfatter-Lexicon fra 1814 til nser vaerende Tid,"
(Copenhagen, 3 vols. Svo, 1843-1853,) with a supplement extending to 1864, (2 vols.)

For Holland. See A. J. VAX DER AA, "Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden,"
(2 vols., 1852-1855.)

For Italy. G. M. MAZZUCHELLI, " Gli Scrittori d Italia, cioe Notizie storiche e critiche
intorno alle Vite e agli Scritti dei Letterati Italiani," (6 vols., 1753-1763 ; a work of great
merit, but unfortunately not extending beyond the first two letters of the alphabet;) E. DE
TIPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri nelle Scienze, Lettere ed Arte del Secolo XVIII. e
de Contemporanei," (10 vols. Svo, 1835-1847;) G. TIRABOSCHI " Storia della Letteratura
Italiana," (20 vols. Svo, 1805-1813.)

For Portugal.- D. BARBOSA MACHADO, " Bibliotheca Lusitana na qual se compre-
hende a Noticia dos Authores Fortuguezes e das Obras que compuserao," (4 vols. fol., 1741-

I759-)

For Spain. N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana sive Hispanorum qui usquam unquamve
sen Latina seu populari, sen alia quavis Lingua scripto aliquid consignaverunt, Notitia," (2
vols. fol., 1672,) and " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." (2 vols. fol., 1783-1788.) To which
may be added CEAN-BERMUDEZ " Diccionario Historico de los mas ilustres Professores de
las bellas Artes en Espana," (6 vols. small Svo, 1800.)

For Sweden. GEORG GEZELIUS, " Forsok til et biographiskt Lexicon ofver namnkunnige
och larde Svenska Miin" (3 vols. Svo, 1776-1778,) and supplement, (2 vols. Svo, 1780;) and
a more recent woi k, of great value, (edited chiefly by W. F. Palmblad,) entitled " Biogra
phiskt Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man," extending to 23 vols. Svo ; the publica
tion of which was begun at Upsal in 1835, and was afterwards continued at Oerebro, (1856 ;)
and a sequel to the same, in 5 vols. (Oerebro, 1857-1864.)

We cannot conclude without expressing our grateful acknowledgments to our numerous
friends, both in this city and in other parts of the United States, not merely for valuable
information of various kinds, but still more for the generous words of encouragement which
we have received from them during our long and arduous labours. We feel confident that
this general expression of our gratitude will be more acceptable to most of them than a more
particular and open acknowledgment of their disinterested kindness.

But there are those whose claims are so important that justice to the public, if not to them
and to ourselves, demands a more explicit statement of the nature of our obligations. To
Mr. William Jacobs, our almost constant collaborator for more than ten years, our acknow
ledgments are pre-eminently due for his conscientious fidelity, no less than for his untiring
diligence and well-directed research, to which must be ascribed in no small measure what
ever of accuracy or thoroughness our work may possess. To his pen we owe not only a
multitude of the minor notices, but no inconsiderable number of the more important articles,
among which may be mentioned those on CICERO, MILTON, NEWTON, LA FAYETTE, HAMIL
TON, (Alexander,) and NAPOLEON III.

Justice and gratitude alike require that we should acknowledge our great obligations to
Professor Edward H. Magill,* of Swarthmore College, for ascertaining, during his recent visit
to Europe, the correct pronunciation of a multitude of difficult or doubtful names in the
French, Italian, and Russian languages. He performed this important task not merely with
the ability of a skilful linguist, but with a conscientious thoroughness and accuracy which can
* Known to the public as the author of a series of excellent elementary books on the French language.

xii PREFACE.

only be fully appreciated by those who know by experience the peculiar difficulties attending
researches of this kind.

We gladly avail ourselves of this opportunity to express our heartfelt thanks to the Rev.
Charles P. Kraulli, D.D., for many important favours, the value of which has been trebly
enhanced by the spirit of truest kindness and generosity in which they have been bestowed.
To cite one example out of many, he has placed at our entire disposal the contents of a library
which, for the number of its volumes, and more especially for the rarity of many of its books,
is surpassed by few, if any, private libraries in the United States.

Nor must we omit to mention our important obligations to Daniel B. Smith, of German-
town, to whose friendly sympathy and encouragement, enjoyed through a series of years, no
less than to his judicious suggestions and valuable counsel, which his extensive and varied
learning so eminently qualifies him to impart, we are more deeply indebted than any words of
ours can express.

To Mr. James S. Lippincott, of Haddonfield, so well known through his important
contributions to climatology and other kindred branches of science, our warmest thanks are
due for much accurate and valuable information relating to a great variety of subjects.

Justice requires that we should not withhold the acknowledgment of our great obligations
to Mr. Joseph McCreery, our accomplished proof-reader, to whose intelligence and judgment
as a critic we are scarcely less indebted than to the remarkable fidelity and accuracy with
which he habitually performs the duties of his office.

Nor can we omit the expression of our heartfelt gratitude to Air. Rudolf Blankenburg for
the aid he has rendered us in regard to the pronunciation of German names, and for other
important assistance in the prosecution of our arduous labours.

With sincere pleasure we embrace this opportunity to express our cordial thanks to
Mr. Lloyd P. Smith, the librarian of the Philadelphia Library, to whose extensive knowledge
of books, as well as to his unfailing courtesy and kindness in aiding our researches^ we
are under especial obligations.

We should do injustice to our own feelings did we not acknowledge our great indebted
ness to Mr. William A. Wheeler, of Boston, for a variety of interesting information in regard
to the pronunciation of difficult or doubtful names, to which his rare skill in questions of
orthoepy has added a double value.

Nor can we withhold the acknowledgment of our heartfelt obligations to the Trustees and
Superintendent of the Boston Public Library, for their liberality in affording us every possible
facility for availing ourselves of the rich literary treasures of an institution, no less remarkable
for the endless variety and value of its works, than for the liberal and enlightened spirit which
presides over its administration.

J. THO MAS.
PHILADELPHIA, June, 1870.

INTRODUCTION.

WE have already in our Preface spoken in general terms of the system of pronunciation and
orthography adopted in the present work. It is proposed in this introductory portion to offer,
in support of the plan that we have thought proper to pursue, some additional arguments and
observations, which will be followed by an explanation of the general principles of pronunciation
of each of the more important European and Asiatic languages.

It is interesting to observe that the practice of nearly
all our distinguished poets, but more particularly of those
of the present century, goes to support the system of
pronunciation which we have adopted ; that is, they
almost invariably follow the native accentuation of proper
names, even where this is very irregular, except in
the case of those few well-known names which have
acquired an established English pronunciation, as CAL
VIN, CORTEZ, KOSCIUSKO, etc. As the principles of
geographical pronunciation are precisely the same as
those of the names of persons, and as geographical names
very often form a part either of the surnames or titles
of distinguished men, we may without impropriety cite,
in order to prove our position, either the names of places
or of persons occurring in the works of the poets. It is
indeed the more necessary that we should be allowed the
liberty of doing so, since names of irregular accentuation
are, comparatively speaking, of rare occurrence. We
have spoken particularly of accentuation, because, in a
large majority of cases, that is all that can be determined
from the usage of the poets. It is scarcely necessary
to remind the classical reader that the misaccentuation
of Latin or Greek names is justly considered an inex
cusable fault in an educated poet. We will endeavour
to show that our best poets are not less punctilious in
the pronunciation of modern names. That they should
accentuate correctly such names as GRANADA, BOLOGNA,
RAVENNA, etc. is nothing surprising, since the easiest
and most natural accentuation is also the correct one ;
but that they should be scrupulously exact in the pro
nunciation of names in which the accent is placed irregu
larly, is more remarkable. It may be affirmed without
fear of contradiction that in all the poetry of BYRON,
MOORE, ROCHES, SOUTHEY, SCOTT and, we may per
haps add, of any other distinguished poet of the present
century scarcely a solitary instance can be pointed out
of the misaccentuation of a name of which the poet had
any opportunity of knowing the correct pronunciation.*

* The only exception to this rule, if we mistake not, occurs in

French names, which, as the accent rests equally (or nearly so) on

all the syllables, cannot readily be adjusted to the metre of English

erse, in which case the poet usually places the accent according

o the general rule of English pronunciation, that is, on the penul-

ima or antepemiltima, very rarely on the last syllable. In the pro-

unciation of foreign names that have become thoroughly anglicized,

t is interesting to observe the tendency of our language to throw the

accent as far as possible from the termination: e.g. Mi I/AN, (It.

True, SCOTT says " Panama ;" but, at the time when he
wrote, very few persons, even in the United States, were
acquainted with the correct accentuation of that name.
Some of our old poets also mispronounced Niagara.
GOLDSMITH says,

" Where wild Oswego spreads her swamps around,
And NIAGARA stuns with thund ring sound. "t

The Traveller.

But this is to be explained simply by the fact that he had
no means of learning the true pronunciation, and therefore
he accentuated the name in the manner which appeared
to him the most easy or most natural. It is worthy of
remark that the only English poet of note who had an
opportunity of ascertaining the true pronunciation of the
name of the great cataract is the only one (so far as we
are aware) who has pronounced that name correctly.
We have heard it asserted that MOORE also, using a
"poet s license," has placed the accent on the penultima ;
but any one, we feel sure, who will read his verse atten
tively, will see that he always gives the correct pronuncia
tion. The name occurs several times in his poems, but
the following passage shows his accentuation so clearly
as to leave no room for doubt or equivocation :

" I could fancy almost he and I were a pair
Of unhappy young lovers, who thus, side by side,
Were taking, instead of rope, pistol, or dagger, a
Desperate dash down the falls of Niagara."

Fudge Family in Paris, Letter V.

The following are a few examples illustrating the usage
of eminent English poets respecting foreign names of
irregular accentuation :

" Lerma the generous, AV II.A the proud. "

ROGERS : Voyage of Columbus.
" So acted to the life, as Maurice might
And SpfNOLA have blushed at the sight."

BEN JONSON : Undcnooods,
(vol. viii. p. 427 of Gifford s edition, London, 1816.)

MII.ANO or MILAN,) TYR OL, (Ger. TYR6L,) etc. HANOVER, which
might be pronounced with the native accentuation (HAN-6v[!K) without
the slightest offence to the genius of our tongue, (for we have a
multitude of words similar in accent, as devotion, promoter, etc.,)
has become irrecoverably HAN OVF.R. Thus, also, we pronounce
ANDALU SIA, (in Spanish, ANDALUCA,) AR AGON, (in Spanish, ARA-
GON ,) etc.

t Many persons suppose that Niagara corresponds in accentuation
with the old Indian name : but this, we have reason to believe, is an
error: the Indians pronounce the name very much as the French
pronounce it, Ne d gd rJ .

INTR OD UCTION.

" And strangers were received by thee,
Of C6KDOVA the chivalry."

BYRON : Translation of a Spanish Ballad
on the Conquest of Albania.

" The regal seat
Of Abdalazis, ancient C6i(DOBA."

"Till they saw

The temples and the towers of C6RDOBA
Shining majestic in the light of eve."

SOUTHEY : Roderick, book v.

" How quick they carved their victims, and how well,
Let Saxony, let injured GENOA tell."

MOORE.

" Remember the moment when PREVESA fell,
The shrieks of the conquered, the conquerors yell."

BYRON : Childe Harold, canto ii.

"Unseen is YANINA, though not remote."

Childe Harold, canto ii.

There is, perhaps, no class of names whose accentua
tion seems more foreign to an English ear than those
ending in ia with the accent on the penultima. Yet
even in such cases the poets conform to the native pro
nunciation :

" Sustained by thoughts like these, from morn till eve
He journeyed, and drew near LEVR! A S walls."

SOUTHEY : Roderick, book iii.

"And now appear, as on a phosphor sea,
Numberless barks from Mil an, from PAvfA."

ROGERS: Italy, Part i., vii.

Among the principal languages of continental Europe,
the German, in its accent and in the metre of its verse,
has perhaps the nearest affinity to the English ; and it
is worthy of remark that precisely the same general
usage prevails with respect to foreign names in German
poetry as in that of our own tongue. Any one may
satisfy himself of the correctness of this statement if
he will consult the poems of Schiller, who seems to have
had occasion to use foreign names far more frequently
than almost any other German poet. In his drama of
" Don Carlos," MADRID occurs nearly twenty times, and
always with the accent on the last syllable. This one
fact (even were there no other) may show how sparingly
the "poetical license," so often alluded to, is used by
perhaps the most careless in versification of all the great
poets of Germany. MIRANDOLA (a town in Italy) occurs
twice, and in both instances has the accent on the ante-
penultima :

"Zwei edle Hauser in MIRANDOLA."
"Eilt nach MIRANDOLA der Trunkene."

Act i. Scene 3.

This is the more remarkable because MIRANDOLA is an
exception to the general rule of Italian pronunciation
which places the accent on the penultima of words end
ing in a vowel.

The name of the famous Princess of EBOLI occurs ?
great number of times, and invariably with the correc
accentuation, that is, with the accent on the antepenul
tima, although this is contrary to the general rule both
of Spanish and Italian pronunciation. The following
lines will suffice to show Schiller s accentuation :
" Ich hoffe meine EB OI.I denkt anders.
" Prinzessin EB OLI, sie haben uns

Noch nicht gesagt ob Gomez hoffen darf. "
" Wir wollen wissen, ob er lieben kann,
Und Liebe kann verdienen, EB OLI?

Don Carlos, Act i. Scene 3.
"Der Fiirstin EB OLI die Hand zu reichen."

Act ii. Scene 8.

"Das lang entbehrte Gliick verschafft, der Fiirstin
Von EB OLI mich wiederum zu nahern."

Act ii. Scene ii.

If our poet is not equally correct in regard to AL-
CALA, (a small town of Spain,) it was owing, doubtless,
ither to the difficulty of making such a name " lie
5 mooth in rhyme," or to his being ignorant of its true
accentuation. The latter is by no means improbable,
nasmuch as the Spanish language is far less studied by
he generality of European scholars than the Italian.
That it was not the result of carelessness is shown by
:he fact that ALCALA is always pronounced in the poem
n the same manner, and according to the general rule of
Spanish accentuation; that is, with the accent on the
jenultima. It may be remarked, however, that Schiller
jlaces the accent on the last syllable of PARIS, SAINT-
DENIS, and SAINT-QUENTIN,* in all of which he differs
Vom the English and conforms to the French accentua
tion. (See " Remarks on the French Accent," page 13.)
But perhaps the most remarkable illustration of this
:endency to adopt the native pronunciation of foreign
names is found in his drama of " Mary Stuart ;" where
the poet, with the obvious intention of obliging his
countrymen to pronounce the English names correctly,
invariably in his verse spells LEICESTER " LESTER,"
although in the explanatory (prose) parts of the play he
as invariably writes it " LEICESTER," as we do in English.
For the same reason, doubtless, he writes BOLEYN
BOULEN," that his countrymen might pronounce the
name Boo len, nearly as it is spoken in England. Had
he written it BOLEYN, the Germans might have placed
the accent on the last syllable, as we often hear it pro
nounced in the United States.

The accentuation of names occurring in poetry, as
already intimated, can readily be determined by the
metre ; but the manner in which the poets pronounced
the letters of a foreign name cannot be so easily ascer
tained, since it can be known only when the name ends
a line in rhyme ; and even then it is often extremely un
certain, as they appear to consider themselves entitled,
in such cases, to much greater license than in the ac
centuation of words. Thus, we often see associated, in
rhyme, words which correspond very imperfectly in
sound, as enemy and lij, mourn and burn, etc. Never
theless, by comparing a number of passages, especially
of those poets who are most remarkable for the cor
rectness of their rhymes, we shall often be enabled to
ascertain the true pronunciation of a word or name.

Now, it will be found that the system which we have
adopted is supported by the practice of the poets in this
respect also. In other words, it will be found that, while
foreign names that are very commonly used in our lan
guage have an English pronunciation, those not very -well
known are generally pronounced with the foreign sound of
the letters, as will be seen from the following passages :

" Tis Jacqueline ! tis Jacqueline !
Her little brother laughing cried ;
I know her by her kirtle green,

She comes along the mountain side. "
" Not now to while an hour away,
Gone to the falls in Valombrl."
" De Courcy, lord of A rgenttire !

Thy thirst for vengeance sought the snare. " ROGERS.

* The two former names occur in "The Maid of Orleans," ("DiV
Jungfrau von Orleans,") the last in " Don Carlos."

INTRODUCTION.

" Winding between Alpine trees,
Spiry and dark around their house of prayer,
Below the icy bed of bright Argeniiire."V?ORDSVlORTH,

" This circumstance may serve to give a notion

Of the high talents of this new Vatiban :*
But the town-ditch below was deep as ocean,
The rampart higher than you d wish to Iiang." BVRON.

" For many an age remember d long
Shall live the towers of Hougomont*

And fields of Waterloo. " SCOTT.

On the other hand, we shall find the poets pronounce
foreign names of some celebrity with the English sound
of the letters, as may be seen from these and similar
examples :

" Oh, never talk again to me

Of northern climes and British ladies ;
It has not been your lot to see,

Like me, the lovely girl of Cadiz." BYRON.
"And Courtenay s pride and Percy s fame
Blazed broader yet in after-years,
At Cressy red and fell Poitiers." SCOTT.

" So the shaft

Of victory mounts high, and blood is quafPd
In fields that rival Cressy and Poictiers,
Pride to be wash d away by bitter tears." WORDSWORTH.

Not unfrequently the poets will be found to give the
correct pronunciation of names even when this differs
essentially from the popular usage. Thus, Halleck says,

" Born in a camp, its watchfires bright

Alone illumed my cradle-bed,
And I had borne with wild delight

My banner where BOLI VAR led." Magdalen.

The pronunciation of the name of COKE, the celebrated
lawyer and statesman, is almost always given correctly
(kdok) by the poets, although this does not correspond
with the usual spelling. t In proof of this we may, out
of a multitude of examples, cite the following:

"May he

Be by his father in his study took
At Shakespeare s plays instead of my Lord Coke."

See "A Poetical Revenge," in COWI.EY S Miscellanies.

" And said she must consult her books,
The lover s Fletas, Bractons, Cokes."

SWIFT: Cademis and Vanessa.

" Also observe that, like the great Lord Coke,
(See Littleton,) whene er I have expressed
Opinions two which at first sight may look
Twin opposites, the second is the best."

BYRON : Don Juan, canto xv. stanza Ixxxvii.

The name of Bolingbroke is almost always pronounced
correctly (Bolingbrook) by the poets. The following
example, out of several occurring in the same poem,
may serve as an illustration :

"What hope have yon that ever Bolingbroke

Will live a subject that hath tried his fate?
Or what good reconcilement can you look,

When he must always fear and you must hate?"

DANIEL : History of the Civil War, book ii. stanza xxxv.

* In these names the letter is similar in sound to ng. The
rhymes, however, are not perfect : the o in the last syllable oflfougo-
mont should be sounded like o in won t, but the final t is silent.
The final syllable of Vauban sounds almost like bong.

t We say usual spelling, because in Coke s own time it was not
unfrequently written Cook. " In the reigns of Elizabeth and James
I., Sir Edward s name was frequently spelt Cook. Lady Hatton, his
second wife, who would not assume it, adopted this spelling in writing
to him, and according to this spelling it has invariably been pro
nounced." (See LORD CAMPBELL S " Lives of the Chief Justices,"
vol. i. chap, vii.)

There is one difficulty in carrying out the system of
foreign pronunciation adopted by us, which it may be
proper to notice here, viz., that of drawing the lines be
tween foreign names which are, and those which are not,
well known. With respect to the more obvious in each
division there cannot be the slightest hesitation ; but the
two classes meet and pass into each other by impercepti
ble gradations, so that sometimes the question whether
they should be pronounced according to the foreign or
the English mode can be settled only by arbitrary decis
ion. In these doubtful instances we have spared no pains
to ascertain the prevailing practice of the best speakers,
as well as the usage of the poets : when these have been
found unsatisfactory, nothing has remained for us but to
decide according to the best of our ability. We have in
these cases usually given both pronunciations, placing
that first which, in our judgment, is to be preferred.

In those cases where it is impossible to express accu
rately the sounds of other languages by English letters,
we have endeavoured to employ a mode of indicating
those sounds which, if it does not afford any effectual
assistance to the mere English scholar, may at least be
in no danger of embarrassing or leading him astray.
Thus, we have represented the sound of the German ch
by K, distinguished by being a small capital. Perhaps
a strongly aspirated h which might be indicated by hh
would convey a nearer idea of the German sound ;
but it seems less eligible than the other mode, both be
cause persons might differ in the pronunciation of it or
perhaps be at a loss to pronounce it at all, and because
the established mode of anglicizing the Germane// seems
to be to change its sound to that of k, as in the instances
BLUCHER,}: BLUMENBACH, METTERNICH, etc. The
Scottish and Dutch sounds of ck, so similar to the Ger
man, when anglicized, assume invariably, if we mistake
not, the sound of k. The ordinary mode of pronouncing
the Greek % tends to the same result. We have not,
however, represented the sound of the German g, at the
end of a syllable, in the same manner as the ch, though it
has nearly the same sound, because it is not customary to
anglicize it by the sound of k, except in a few instances.
Were the pronunciation of such a word as berg repre
sented by berv., the effect would be to lead the Eng
lish scholar to pronounce it differently from the ordinary
mode, while he would be in no respect nearer the
German than those who pronounce the word according
to the English sound of the letters. Another considera
tion may, perhaps, be allowed to have some weight,
viz., that though the more approved mode of German
pronunciation requires that^, when it does not begin a
word, should be pronounced nearly like ch, yet in some
parts of Germany it is pronounced in every case like g
hard in English. In a similar manner, and for similar
reasons, we have usually represented the German w by a

t Although in America we very frequently hear this name pro
nounced Blu tcher by intelligent speakers, the ch should unquestion
ably be hard, as is indicated by the following passage from Moore s
" Fudge Family in Paris :"

" A fine sallow sublime sort of Werter-faced man,
With mustnchios that gave (what we read of so oft)
The dear Corsair expression, half savage, half soft ;
As hyenas in love may be fancied to look, or
A something between Abelard and old Blucher."
DANTZIC or DANTZICK, (German, Danzig,) I.EIPSIC or LEIP-
SICK, (German, Leipzig?) SI.ESWICK, (German, Schlewvig ; Danish,
Slesvig,) are the only examples that we now recollect.

INTRODUCTION.

ft, and not by a v, though this is nearer the sound of the
German letter.

With regard to French names, however, a different
plan has been pursued, both because it is less easy, so
to speak, to anglicize the French letters, and because,
from the circumstance of this being far more studied
than any other foreign language, it is much more usual
for English, or American speakers to adopt all the pecu
liar sounds in pronouncing French words or names.

ARABIC.
I.

The Arabic belongs to what is called the Semitic*
family of languages, and is nearly related to the Hebrew,
which it resembles not only in its general grammatical
structure, but also in the form of many of its individual
words. Of all the Semitic family it is by far the richest
in its literature and the most copious in its vocabulary.
Like the Hebrew, it is written from right to left. It
belongs to the class referred to in the Preface (p. vi.) as
" neither written in Roman letters nor in characters
which can be converted into corresponding Roman let
ters ;" it is therefore customary for Europeans in giving
Arabic words or names to spell them according to the
sound, the writers of the different nations seeking to
indicate the pronunciation in the manner which to them
seems most proper. In order to be able to point out
more clearly the causes of the diversity which prevails
among European writers respecting the manner of rep
resenting the sounds of the Arabic tongue, and for other
reasons, we have deemed it proper to present to the
reader a table of the Arabic characters, accompanied by
such explanations as seemed necessary for our purpose.

The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters,
as follows :

, o

^
z ta

v_J
O

3-
4-

6 - Z t?

7- f t

9- o f L\

NAME.
alif,

ta.
tha.

jeem or jim.
na.

kha.

10.
1 1.

12.

13-
14.

15-

1 6.

17-

j
U~-

Ja Ja

Ja ,ia

seen or sin,

sheen or shin,

sad,

dsad,

ta,

POWER.

b.
t.

th.

j-
H.

kh.

d.
dh.

r.
z.

sh.

s or ss.
ds or dh.

dz or dh.

* I.e. Shemitic, a term derived from Shem, the son of Noah,
t The letters thus marked ought never, according to the rules of
Arabic orthography, to be connected with those that follow them.

NAME.

POWER.

1 8.
19.
20.

24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

ain, (S inorin,) t
ghain, (gi inorGin,) j

fa, f.

lam,

meem or mini,

noon or nun,

wavv,

ha,
A

In the Persian, (and Hindostanee,) besides the fore
going, the following four additional characters are used :
UNCONNECTED. FINAL CONNECTED. MEDIAL. INITIAL. POWER.

( ) v A. &gt;. J p.

(See Section XIV.)

1. \ at the beginning of a word is sounded variously,
according to the vowel-points placed upon it, (see 31 of
this section ;) in the middle of a word it is sounded as a
long a, as in ^&gt;Li (l&gt;dl&gt;,) a gate.

2. *__&gt; sounds like b in English.

3. o has the sound of the Spanish t. (See XIX. 17.)

4. O sounds like our th in thin, or the Spanish z.
S^^I 1 Persian and Hindostanee it has the sound of s.

5. _ is usually pronounced like the English/ , though
in some dialects it has the sound of g hard.

6. r sounds nearly like the Spanish j or x, (see
XIX. 9,) but it is formed lower in the throat.

!-Z

sounds like the German ch in ach, doch, etc.

It is commonly represented in the French and English
languages by kh, and in the German by ch.

8. ^&gt; nearly resembles the English d in sound, but,
in pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue is placed against
the teeth. It bears the same relation to our t/that the
Spanish t does to our t.

9. J&gt; has no exact equivalent in any European lan
guage, though it nearly resembles the sound of our th in
thy. It is often represented by dh, and sometimes by ds,
d/is, or simple d. ^^" In Persian and Hindostanee it
takes the sound of z.

10. . sounds like the French or Italian r, or like rr in
the English word terror.

11. ; has the sound of our 0.

12. (j* sounds like our s in this.

13. (jii is like the English sh.

14. (jo sounds nearly like the English sharp s; but,

% These letters have in sound nothing like them in English. (See
18 and 19 of this section.)

Written, also, ^3. II Written, also, ta5

INTRODUCTION.

in pronouncing it, the teeth are not brought so nearly
into contact. It is often represented by ss, or by f.

15. (ji? lias no equivalent in any European language.
It is variously represented by dz, d/i, dd, and ds. Jt^f^ This
letter, in Persian and Hindostanee, takes the sound of 2.

16. _f is in sound nearly like the English f, but is
pronounced somewhat harder. It is variously repre
sented by t, it, and th*

17. _ has a sound somewhat similar to (JJ?. It can
not be indicated by any English letter or combination of
letters ; it is, however, usually represented by dh or dth.
fijj^ It is pronounced like z in Persian and Hindostanee.

18. p has no exact equivalent in any European tongue.
It nearly corresponds to the Hebrew y. In the hiatus pro
duced in uttering a a in quick succession, we make a
sound very similar to the Arabic ain, but the latter is
formed lower in the throat.

19. c has no equivalent in English. It bears nearly
the same relation to hard g that kk (K) does to k. It is
sometimes represented by^, but more frequently by "A,
at least by French and English Orientalists.

20. v_i has the sound of our f.

21. ^jj is similar to our k, but is formed lower in the
throat. There seems to be a sort of aspirate mixed with
the sound of/ . It is sometimes represented by ,, (with
a dot under it,) and sometimes by q.

22. i in sound is exactly like our /.

23. J is like the English /.

24. is pronounced like our m.

25. ... is in sound like the English ;;.

26. *, as a vowel, is equivalent to oo or 11 ; as a con
sonant, it sounds like the English w or z&gt;.

27. H sounds like our h ; when final, it is nearly silent.

28. ^_c, as a vowel, sounds like ee or t, in which case
a kasra is implied or expressed ; as a consonant, like y.
In the middle of a word the sound of ^ may be doubled
by means of the tashdeed, which, in writing, is often
omitted. Preceded by fatha, (see below,) this letter as
sumes the sound of our long i, and is represented by at.

29. All the foregoing characters are regarded by Arab
grammarians as consonants. I has been compared to
the soft breathing (spiritus lenis) of the Greeks ; c. is
a similar breathing, though the place of its formation is
lower in the throat.

30. The true vowels are three. They are called i.
Pat ha, (a;]} 2. Kas ra, (i, sometimes e ;} and 3. Dham-
ma,\ (oo or .) Fatha is written thus over the con
sonant to which it belongs ; kasra is placed beneath its
consonant, thus-p-; dhamma (which is in fact a minute &gt;)
is written over its consonant, thus,--. These vowels
are always joined to the consonant which in pronuncia
tion precedes them: thus, in *AS, (kalam,) a "reed" or
"pen," the first fatha is considered to belong to the Mf,
over which it is placed, the second to the lam, (not to

* In such cases th is not intended to indicate a sound like that
of the English th or the Greek 9, but rather a sound similar to that
of the Hindoo th. (See XVIII. 6.)

t Often represented by e, and sometimes (in English) by u short.
(See IX. 3, and XI 1 1. 3.)

t Pronounced by the Persians zam ma.

Often represented by a, as in the case of Mohammed, (see 32 of
this section.)

the meem which comes after it ;) and so in all similai
cases : it follows that no vowel can standby itself.y Hence,
if we wish to write an initial short fatha, it must be as
sociated either with alif or ain, as &gt;A:&gt;i, (ahad,) a
"unit,"_Jic, (afu,) "forgiveness." If we would write
a short initial kasra or dhamma, we must begin the word
in the same manner: e.g. .y- j) fjb n,) a "son," ^&gt;l~:-c,
(Ibacl,) " servants," vjti, (uf or oof,) "fie!" .^c, (ubur
or ooboor,) a "passage" or "crossing."

31. As a general rule, if any one of the simple vowels
is joined to an ordinary consonant, or to an initial alif
or ain, it is short, as will be seen from the previous
examples ; but if in any syllable not initial they are
joined with any of the (so-called) consonants (alif, ain,
tuaw, etc.) to which they naturally correspond, they be
come long: for example, fatha with alif m ain gives us
the sound of d, as v_. ;Lj, (bab,) a "gate," tAxJ, (bad or
ba-ad,) "after:" so kasra with yd gives the sound of i,
(or ee,} as (jj^, (seen or sin,) the name of the letter , w ;
so also dhamma with waw gives the sound of u or
oo, as Qy, (nun or noon,) the name of the letter .... It
should be observed that the fatha or dhamma is not
written on the alif or waw, nor the kasra under the yd,
but is joined to the previous consonant, the semi-con
sonants coming after, for the sole purpose, it would seem,
of prolonging the vowel. If In order to indicate the sound
of d at the beginning of a word, it is usual to place a
circumflex over the alif, thus, ^. The initial long i(ior
ce) is represented by JJ, and long it (n or oo) by ^1.

32. The vowels are not usually written in Arabic
manuscripts, and they are scarcely needed by the native
Arabs who already know the language ; but they are
of great utility to foreigners in learning Arabic. The
same may be said of the jazm or jezm, (",) a mark placed
upon a consonant to show that it has no vowel following
it, as O; "&gt; ) (azrak, " blue," which without the jazm might
be pronounced azarak,) and the tashdeed or tashdid, (-,)
placed on a consonant to show that it must be doubled
in pronunciation ; as A.^&lt;\^), (Mohammed.)

33. It is proper to observe that when the Arabic
article al or el is followed by certain letters it changes
its sound to that of the letter following: thus, el-Deen
becomes cd-Deen ; cl-Dowlah, ed-Dcnvlah ; al-Rahman
or el-Rahman, ar- Rahman or er-Rahman ; al- Temeemee,
at- Temeemee ; and so on. (See XIII. 4.)

REMARKS ON ARABIC PRONUNCIATION.

When any of the long vowels (see 31 of this section)
occur in the final syllable of a word or name ending in
a consonant, that syllable always takes the accent accord
ing to the common European signification of this term.

Some eminent grammarians lay it down as a rule that
the accent in Arabic never falls on the last syllable ; but
this rule proceeds on the supposition that the final syl
lable is short. Or, if it be meant to apply to all syllables,
long as well as short, the term "accent" cannot be under
stood in the sense in which it is used by most European

II It may be remarked as an apparent exception to this rule that
Ibn, "son," is often written simply .. J (bn ;) but this is usually to
be considered as an abbreviation for ,-tJ &gt; though tenor bin is
not (infrequently used instead of the longer form ibn.

H The long vowels in Arabic are to be pronounced very full and
long, particularly the long a, which is not only longer but sensibly
broader than our a \\\far. (See XIV. 4.1

INTRODUCTION.

nations. In support of our position, we may cite, as a
practical argument of great force, the fact that when an
Arabic word ending in a consonant, preceded by a long
vowel, is adopted into any European language, it takes
the accent on the final syllable: thus, Wddy-al-Kebir\&gt;z-
comes in Spanish Guadalquivir, Al-Mansoor becomes Al-
mansor, and so on. Nor can it be said that this ultimate
accent is due to the tendency of the Spanish language
to throw the accent on the last syllable ; for Almodovar,
derived from the Arabic Al-Modhofer, (which, like Al-
Mansoor, signifies " the Victorious,") is in its Spanish
form accentuated precisely as in the Arabic, that is,
on the penultima. If an Englishman who should hear
a native Arab pronounce the word kcbir, "great," or
kethtr, "much," should be told, by one who had any
knowledge of the subject, that the first and not the last
syllable was accentuated, he could come to no other
conclusion than that in the mind of the speaker accent
had a totally different meaning from what it has in Eng
lish and in most other European tongues. In Hammer-
PurgstalPs great work on the literature of the Arabs,
he translates into German verse many thousand lines
from the Arabian poets, and he invariably, if we are not
mistaken, places the accent on a long final syllable end
ing in a consonant. In illustration and support of this
statement, we may select, from a multitude of the same
general character, the following passage. A witty Ara
bian poet had been found half drunk by one of the
caliph s police-officers in a tippling. house. The officer
questioned the offender, as he had been instructed to
do, "Who art thou, and what is thy religion ?" The
poet s answer, rendered into German, is as follows :

" Ich glaube was glauben die Beni Abbas
Und was 1st besiegelt mil Thon auf Papier;
Wenn icli getnmken ein frbliches Glas,
Und wenn es im Kopfe rmnoret bei mir,
So sei die geringste der Sorgen dir das."*
See " Literaturgescllichte der Amber," vol. iii. p. 462.

If there were any Arabic words, ending in a long final
syllable, that might be considered doubtful, it would be
those which, like Abbas, have a double consonant in the
penultima ; and yet nothing can be clearer than that the
accent is placed on the final syllable only, in the foregoing
verse. Mansur, (Mansoor,) though having also two
consonants after the penultimate vowel, is pronounced
by Hammer-Purgstall in the same manner. The reader,
by referring to the above work, will find a multitude of
similar examples, among others BAGDAD, with the accent
on the last syllable, (see vol. iii. p. 440,) to which testi
mony we may add that of one of the most learned and
accurate of our English poets. Southey in his "Thalaba"
says,

"The old man answered, To BAGDAD I go."

"Stands not BAGDAD
Near to the site of ancient Babylon?"

"At length BAGDAD appeared,
The city of his search."

* The following is a nearly literal translation: "I believe what
ever the Beni AbbSs [then the reigning family of caliphs] believe, and
whatever is sealed with wax upon paper, [that is, whatever is gen
erally recognized and established.] If I have drunk a cheerful glass,
and if it causes some confusion in my head, let that be the least of
thy cares."

CHINESE.

II.

As it would be out of the question in a work like the
present to attempt to give a minute and systematic ex
position of the principles of Chinese pronunciation, vary
ing greatly as they do in different provinces and among
different classes of the community, we shall content
ourselves with merely offering a few brief observations,
for the purpose of explaining the more obvious differ
ences in the mode of representing Chinese names among
the nations of the West.

1. One of the remarkable peculiarities of the Chinese
tongue is the perpetual occurrence of nasal sounds. It
was through the Portuguese, who, among all the nations
of Europe, were the first to become intimately acquainted
with China and the Chinese, that the forms of celebrated
Chinese names first became familiar to Europeans. It
so happened that the Portuguese language abounded in
the same class of nasal sounds ; and in representing these
sounds in Chinese names according to the principles of
their own language the Portuguese missionaries adopted
a spelling which would necessarily convey an erroneous
idea of the pronunciation to the great majority of
Europeans. Thus, they wrote for the name of the great
northern capital of China, Pcqitim or Pcquin, and for
that of the southern capital, Nanquim or Nanquin, the
Portuguese pronunciation of which would be nearly
pa kecN 1 or pa keeng , and naVkeeN or nang keeng .
The Spaniards, then the leading nation in the world,
having conquered Macao and the other Portuguese pos
sessions in the far East, adopted, with little or no change,
the Portuguese spellings, giving to them their own pro
nunciation, which they introduced among the other na
tions o^Europe. The result was that, until very recently,
PEKING was often written Pekin, and was generally pro
nounced in Europe pa-keen or pe-kii/; and NANKING,
commonly written Nankin, was called nan kcen .f TON-
QUIN (pronounced almost tong king by the Chinese) still
retains its Spanish pronunciation, ton-keen ; and CANTON
(in Chinese Qnantong) has in English and in most other
European tongues completely dropped the nasal termi
nation and taken the sound of n pure. In like manner
we are to explain the fact that the names CONFUCIUS
and MKNCIUS, by which the two great Chinese philoso
phers (KoNG-FOO-TSE and MENG-TSE) are generally
known in Europe, have no trace of that nasal sound which
is so distinct an element in those names as spoken by
the Chinese.

2. Several consonant sounds which are found in all, or
nearly all, European tongues, are wanting in most of the
Chinese dialects, viz., / , d, g, (hard,) r, v, and s. It being
a principle or law of this language that every individual
word must be a monosyllable, ending either in a pure
vowel or a nasal, it often causes strange transformations
when an attempt is made to introduce words or names
from other nations : thus, the Hindoo Booddha is changed
into Fo, the initial B being necessarily replaced by a
Chinese consonant, and the monosyllable which is sub
stituted for the original dissyllable drops the terminal
consonant, according to the usage of the language.

On account of the difficulty and uncertainty attending
the pronunciation of Chinese names, resulting from the

t As is shown by the common English name of a kind of clolh
manufactured there.

INTRODUCTION.

great diversity of dialects in that country, to attempt
any great exactness or nicety in representing that pro
nunciation would clearly be a work of supererogation.
We have deemed it sufficient to give the names accord
ing to the usage of the best European writers, taking
care only, when there is occasion to do so, to render
the French, Portuguese, or German spellings into their
nearest English equivalents. Jj^^ Respecting the diver
sity of forms caused by writing Oriental names iu dif
ferent languages, see Preface, (pp. vi.-viii.,) and Section
XIII., on the Oriental Languages, in this Introduction.

DANISH.
III.

1. A usually has a sound between that in the English
word far and that in fat. It may be represented by t.
When it ends a syllable it is usually longer than when
followed by a vowel in the same syllable : \\\\\$, fader
("father") is pronounced fi Der, nearly like the English
father. Aa is commonly pronounced nearly like our aw,
(or an.)

2. E, at the end of an accented syllable, usually has a
sound like that of i m pin, (see XX., 3 ;) in other cases it
is sometimes like e in met, and sometimes like e in battery.

3. /is like ee, or like i \\\ pin. ft is like our ee.

4. O is like the English o.

5. C/is like oo.

6. Kis equivalent to the French u or it.

7. Ae sounds like a in fate.

8. le sounds like ee in English.

9. Oc or o is the same as in German.

10. The consonants b, c, f, //, k, I, m, n, p, q, s, t, x, z
are like the English.

n. Z&gt;, at the beginning of a word, is like the English
d ; between two vowels, or at the end of a syllable in
which it follows a vowel, it sounds nearly like th in this,
(th.) When preceded by /, n, or r, more particularly
when it occurs at the end of a word, it is almost or quite
silent, as in \\y\\dga\d.

12. G is always hard ; at the end of a word it is
sounded very slightly, so as to resemble h: e.g. AALBORG
is pronounced nearly ol bor h.

13. yis like the English y, (consonant.)

14. R is similar to the German.

15. V\% usually like the English ; but av sounds like
fcv, (or on in our:} plov (a " plough") is pronounced
plfao.

1 6. JFbas a sound similar to that of our v or the Ger
man 7C. It is sometimes interchangeable with v.

DUTCH.
IV.

1. The vowels a, c, i, o, and u are similar to the
French.

2. Fis like long i in English, as in nigh.

Oi?s. Ij is often made use of instead of y : thus, OVKKYSSEI. (the
okl spelling) is now commonly written O-&gt;erijssel.

3. Aa is a long, (S.)

4. Ac is equivalent to Ja or 5.

5. Re (equivalent to c long) sounds like our a in fate.
C&gt;. Ei or ey is like the German ci, or our long /, (I.)

7. le sounds like cc in English.

8. OL sounds like oo.

9. Oo is always pronounced like o long in English,
or like oo in door.

10. Ui or ny is similar to oi in English, or eu in Ger
man. It appears, however, that formerly the Dutch id
had a different sound, somewhat resembling a lengthened
ii. (See H. FKIJUNK, " Woordenboek voor vreemde
Eigennamen," p. 31, Amsterdam, 1858.)

1 1. The consonants b, c,f, h, /, /, m, ;/, /, q, r, s, f, x,
and s are similar to the English.

12. D, at the end of a word, is like /; in other cases
it is the same as in English.

13. G resembles in sound a strongly aspirated h, or
the German ch.

14. y is equivalent to the English y, (consonant.)

15. V, at the beginning of a word or name, usually
sounds nearly like f: or, to speak more exactly, it has a
sound intermediate between that of the German v (f) and
our v.

16. W is somewhat like the German, but softer ; in
other words, it has a sound between that of our w and
the German w. In the word Nieuw, ("new,") followed
by a consonant, as NiEUwrooRT, (written also NIEU-
POORT,) it is silent.

17. Ch is similar to the German cJi.

18. Sch, however, has not, as in German, the sound
of the English sh, but the pure sound of s, followed by
the guttural ch, resembling sk in English.

he FLEMISH is so closely allied to the Dutch that it may
be regarded as essentially the same language. It differs, however,
somewhat in the spelling of words. According to the modern Dutch
orthography, tin is generally substituted for ne, and ij for y. In
Flemish both of these old forms are still retained.

FRENCH.

1. A, in French, has two sounds : the short, as in ami,
la bal, etc., is intermediate between I (as in the English
word far) and &, (as in fat:) this sound in the present
work is represented by i. The second or long sound is
like that in our wordy??;-; it occurs in the a circumflexed
(a) and a followed by a silent s, as in pas, which should
be pronounced as if written pa. This sound is repre
sented by a.

2. E has four sounds : (\) close, likert in the English word
fate, e.g. in ete, (represented in this work by a ;) (2 and 3)
open* the second e, nearly as in met, but more pro
longed, e.g. in proces, (represented by C or &lt;\ ;) the third

e circumflexed) is like the preceding, but still more
open and more prolonged, e.g. in tele; it is represented
by f ; (4) obscure, as in battci y, e.g. in retour, devrait.\

3. / has two sounds : the first nearly as in the Eng
lish word fig, e.g. in U, ami ; the second like ie in field,
or ee, e.g. in git, pie, etc.

4. O has three sounds : (i) nearly as in robe, e.g. in
tr&ne, (represented by o ;) (2) as in rob, e.g. in parole;
(3) as in lord, e.g. in corps. The second and third are
both represented by o without any mark.

5. The sound of the French u has no equivalent in
English. It may be said to be intermediate between ee

* In pronouncing this sound the mouth must be freely opened,
whence the name.

t The e in these and similar cases is often scarcely sounded at all,
and appears to pass imperceptibly into e mute ; retour and devrait
may be pronounced r tooR and d vuV It should, however.be ob-
;erved that in reading poetry, as well as in the graver style of public
speaking, the unaccented e, even when it forms the terminal letter of
such words as fife, parle, etc., nearly always makes a distinct and
separate syllable. (See 18 of this section.)

I I

INTRODUCTION.

and oo. This is one of the most difficult sounds in the
language, but may readily be produced if the speaker &gt;
after placing his lips in the position proper for sounding
our oo, attempts, wit/tout turning his lips, to utter the
sound of ee. In I4ie present work it is represented by
the German it.

OBS. U, before nasal, lias its second English sound nearly, tin
being pronounced almost like zJN.

6. Y is similar to the French /. In the middle of a
word ,y is usually equivalent to it, as mfuyard, fu-e yfR ,
(pronounced in French, fat-tar.)

7. Ai and ay are like e, (represented by i.)

OBS. When ai forms the termination of verbs, as in fat, ("I
\\x\e,") je parlai, ("I spoke,")/* parlerai, ("I shall speak,") it has
the sound of t, or a in /ate. Some authorities say that while aie, ais,
and aye are to be sounded as I, ai, ay, ei, and ey terminal (that is,
when not followed by e or s mute) should be pronounced as e, (I ;)
but to this general rule there appear to be many exceptions.*

8. Att is like d.

9. Ei and ey are like e, (see 7 of this Section ; Ob
servation.)

10. Ku is nearly similar to the English u in tub, but the
sound is somewhat closer and more prolonged, nearly
resembling that of u mfiir. It is similar to the German
o, but is rather more open.

OBS. En, iii the different parts of the verb avoir, "to have,"
always lias the sound of simple u.

11. Ie is like ee in English, or i.

12. Oi usually sounds like wa : e.g. moi is pronounced
mwa or mwoh.

Ous. Oi \\ns formerly used in the termination of the French verbs,
e.f . aval s, avoit, avoient ; also in the final syllable of many adjectives,

* There is not only considerable diversity among the different
French authorities in regard to the pronunciation of words or names
with these terminations, but scarcely any one writer appears to be
consistent with himself in this respect. In Boyer s " French Dic
tionary," with the pronunciation according to the Abbe Tardy, (Bos
ton, 1822,) Bey (a Turkish governor) is pronounced b\, (or be ;) but
all words ending in ai, as balai, delai, essai, gai, geai, lai, Mai, quai,
vrai, are pronounced with the open sound of e, (3 or A ;) the ai of
balai, gai, geai, lai, Mai, and quai is sounded like the English e in
met, but in delai, essai, and vrai, like e in there. In the Dictionary
of Fleming and Tibbins, (American edition, Philadelphia, 1843,) a; in
gai, Mai, and quai has the sound of e, close A, (or e\) but balai,
delai, essai, lai, and vrai are pronounced in precisely the same
manner as in the preceding work. In Spiers and Surenne s Dic
tionary (American edition, 1852) gai has the sound of e close, (A or
e ;) but balai, Mai, and all other words (not verbs) of this termi
nation are pronounced with the sound of open e. Bey, as in Boyer
and Fleming and Tibbins, is pronounced bA, (or be;) but dey, a word
similar in its origin and general character, has the open sound of e,
(tie.) Ay and ey, when forming the termination of proper names, are
in Spiers and Surenne s Dictionary invariably represented in pro
nunciation by e, with the single exception of Sohvay. See, also,
" Surenne s French Pronouncing Dictionary,"( American edition, from
the Edinburgh edition of 1840.) in which is given the pronunciation
of a great many proper names ending in ay and ey, and never with
the sound of e close, (e,) except in the solitary instance of Sohvay,
just noticed. Mr. Bescherelle, perhaps the highest modern authority
in regard to the pronunciation as well as the definition of French words,
does not speak very definitely in regard to the sound of ai or ay
terminal ; but, under the letter E, he says ey has its middle sound
("son moyen ou deini-ouvert" ) in bey, dey, Hervey, Ney, Volney, etc.,
(see "Dictionnaire National," vol. i., pp. 1049 and 1050.) In con
sideration of the general tendency of the preceding writers, and sup
ported by the high authority last named, we have adopted the general
rule to make the e open in the final syllables of all names of this class.
At the same lime, those who are anxious to be accurate in their pro
nunciation should take care to make the sound of ai, ay, and ey,
terminal, less open and less full than in the final syllables aie, aye,
ais, eys, etc.
1.2

as Polotiois, "Polish," and Lyonnois, "belonging to Lyons." The
oi in these words which are now usually written avais, avail,
avaieni, Polonais, Lyonnais sounds like ai, (or e.)

13. On sounds like oo in English.

14. B, &lt;r,t d, f, k, p, t, v, and z are the same as in
English.

15. G, before a, o, and n, is hard, as in the English
\vo\&lt;\ gap ; before e, i, and y it is soft, having the sound
of zh, or of s in the English word pleasure. Gii sounds
like g hard : thus, gne, guide, are pronounced ga, ged or
geed.

16. ff\s never pronounced in French so forcibly as in
English. Some of the best French authorities, indeed,
say that the h should never be sounded at all in French
words or names ; the only difference they would make
between the (so-called) aspirated and nnaspirated initial
h is, that before the latter the a or unaccented e in such
particles as la, le, etc. is dropped, as Vherbe, (pronounced
likb,) "the grass;" Vhomme, (lorn,) "the man;" while
before the former it is retained, as la halle, (pronounced
It 81,) "the market;" le hamac, (leh S inik ,) "the ham
mock," etc.

17. y sounds like soft g in French, or zh in English.

1 8. L has usually the same sound as in English ; but
when it ends a word, being preceded by i, or when //
follows i in any situation, it usually has what is called
its liquid sound. This may be said to answer nearly to
the sound of /// in million, the sound of / in such cases
being blended with that of y, (consonant:) e.g. papillon
is pronounced pi pel yoN 1 ; CHANTIU.Y, shSN tel ye , etc.
It should, however, be observed that at present, accord
ing to the general practice of the more polite French
speakers, the sound of / in such words is in ordinary
conversation scarcely heard at all, so that their pronun
ciation may rather be indicated thus, pt pe yoN , sh5.\ -
te ye ; but in the higher style of speaking, and in
public discourses, the / in such cases is, according to
the best usage, distinctly pronounced.

19. M and n, when followed by a vowel, or when
double, have the same sound as in English; but when
at the end of a word, (not immediately followed by
another word beginning with a vowel,) or when followed
by another consonant in the middle of a word, they have
what is termed the nasal sound, which somewhat re
sembles that of ng in long, pang, etc., but is softer :J
thus, m and n are nasal in such words as comparer, &lt;r&lt;?.\-
tewte, but have their natural sound in such as commune,
co nmi. Bon, (" good,") before a consonant or standing
by itself, would be pronounced box ; but if followed im
mediately by a vowel, as in the phrase ban ami, ("good
friend,") the final n is sounded distinctly, as nil would
be in the same position. The pronoun sien, when not
followed by a vowel, is pronounced nearly se-jlN ; but
when it takes the feminine termination the ;/, being
doubled, has the same sound as in English, so that sienne
is pronounced se-&n f .

20. M or n nasal, when preceded by e, causes this
vowel to assume the broad sound of a: thus, dents, sens,
are pronounced like the French words dans and suns,
almost as if written in English d6\ and SON.

t C with a cedilla, (g) before a, o, and it, sounds like s : thus, fa,
(o, (n are pronounced like sa, so, su.

% In uttering this sound, care should be taken not to press the
back part of the tongue against the palate, as is done in pronouncing
the English fig.

INTRODUCTION.

21. /;/, im, ain, aim, ein, oin, and en, preceded imme
diately by i, when nasal, have a sound nearly resembling
that of ang\\\ the English word /-. In such cases, in,
im, ain, aim, ein, and en are pronounced alike aN ; the o
in oin has the sound of our w, so that loin and soin are
pronounced almost IwaN, swaN.

22. In om and &lt;w nasal, the o has nearly the sound
of 6 as in wont.

23. (7 or qti, in French, always sounds like /: ^. &lt;7^/
is pronounced / /; &lt;7/, XY.

Ous. (?, in French words, (except when terminal, as in coq and
cinq,) is always followed by , though it is often employed without
this letter in writing certain foreign names.

24. R is like the English, but is trilled more strongly,
especially when it precedes another consonant, or stands
at the end of a word, as in vev.tu, puniv. : in similar cases
the English r is but very slightly sounded. This sound
is represented by a small capital R.

25. S, when single and between two vowels, sounds
like z: in other cases it is the same as in English.

26. ^f generally has the same sound as in English, but
is sometimes sounded like s, e.g. in six, pronounced sess,
and Bruxelles, (Brussels,) pronounced brii sSl , and oc
casionally like 2, as in dixieme, cle ze-|m/.

27. Cli is like s/i in English ; tk is always like t.

28. Gn (the same as in Italian) has a sound which
blends that of n and y, (consonant,) or, in other words,
is equivalent to the sound of ni in minion. Thus, AVI
GNON is pronounced t ven yo.V.

Ous. This sound is represented in Spanish hy ft, and bears the
same relation to n that the liquid / (T) does to the ordinary /. In
Hungarian it is expressed by ny, and in Portuguese by nh.

When it occurs in the middle of a word, we have represented it
by n and y, as in the example above given ; but when it stands at
the end of a word, as it cannot then be expressed by any letter
or combination of letters in English, it has been indicated by the
Spanish n : accordingly, the French pronunciation of such names
as COLOGNE and BOULOGNE is thus given: ko lofi*, boo loii .

SILENT LETTERS.

29. The vowel e at the end of a word, when not marked
with an accent, is invariably mute : e.g. in parle, contente*
etc.

30. The French consonants, when occurring at the
end of a word, are generally not pronounced, unless they
are immediately followed by a word beginning with a
vowel : e.g. in content, (pronounced cdN tdN ,) and dents,
(d&N.) If, however, they are followed by a mute e or any
other vowel, they must always be articulated : e.g. in con
tent c, detfte, etc.

OHS. i. The letters c, f, I, and rare, when final, very often pro
nounced, (the two former almost always:) e.g. in avec, neiif, il, and
punir.

Ous. 2. The French articulate the final consonants in almost all
foreign and classical names: e.g. in AMSTERDAM, {in not nasal,)
VENUS, etc.

REMARKS ON THE FRENCH ACCENT.
It may be observed that the French language has no
accent, in the sense in which we employ this term. The

* The particles le, nc, and the pronouns fe, me, te, etc., are per
haps, strictly speaking, exceptions ; but though the e in these words
is not always absolutely mute, it is very often so: thus, the sentence
vans me trouverez le meme is pronounced in rapid conversation voom
troov r\l man, the vowel in me and ne being entirely suppressed,
and the consonants attached to the preceding words.

marks, called accents, that are placed over the different
vowels, serve only to indicate some particular sound of
these letters, and not that peculiar impulse of the voice
which characterizes an accented syllable in the English
and most other European tongues. Thus, the accent
over the e in parle serves to show that this vowel has its
first French sound, and at the same time distinguishes
it from parle, another form of the same verb, in which
the e is mute. The circumflex imparts to the vowel
over which it is placed a longer and deeper sound than
ordinary : e.g. in hate, tempete, gite, and apdtre.

It is commonly said that the French pronounce all the
syllables of a word with an equal stress of voice, but that
they seem to an English ear to accentuate the last, be
cause in our language the universal tendency is to throw
the accent towards the beginning of the word. Others,
on the contrary, maintain that in pronouncing words of
a number of syllables the voice of a native French
speaker almost invariably rises and dwells on the last,
and that this peculiar terminal intonation is very analo
gous, and nearly equivalent, to our accent. This last
opinion appears to us to be not without a real founda
tion. But, however the question may be settled, the
fact that the English who have learned the pronun
ciation of names from hearing them spoken by the
French themselves, almost invariably throw the accent
on the final syllable, furnishes, in our judgment, sufficient
grounds for establishing a general rule on this subject.
Accordingly, in the present work we have, with very
few exceptions, placed the principal accent on the last
syllable of French names ; at the same time, it has
been thought proper to mark the others with sec
ondary accents, in order to prevent them from being
pronounced too slightly or indistinctly, as is usually
the case with unaccented syllables in English. The
pronunciation of ORLEANS, for example, has been thus
given : oR la oN .

OBS. Particular care, however, should be taken not to break such
names into as many isolated sounds as there are different syllables,
but, while pronouncing these syllables with a stress of voice nearly
equal, to let each glide smoothly into that which follows it. It may
be observed that the French, in uttering short sentences, usually
make the different words run into each other, as if they were parts
of the same word.

GERMAN.
VI.

1. A, in German, usually sounds as in the English
word far, though sometimes approximating the a in fat.

2. E, when long, sounds like a in fate ; when short,
like e in met: frequently, however, it has an obscure
sound, like e in bitter, paper, etc. It should have this
obscure sound whenever it ends an unaccented syllable,
(as in Goethe,} or when it precedes /, n, or r in an un
accented syllable, (as in Schlegel, Bun sen, Schiller.}

3. /long sounds like i in marine, (or ee in English ;)
/ short, like i in pit.

4. O long sounds like o in no : o short, nearly like t&gt;
in on.

5. /long is like oo in moon; u short, like oo in good.

6. Y sounds like the German / .

7. Ac, or a, is similar to the German e, or to the Eng
lish a in fate or e in met.

8. le is equivalent to i long, (or ^in English.)

9. Of, or ii, nearly resembles the eu in French, but
has no parallel sound in English : the sound in our Ian-

INTRODUCTION.

guage nearest to it is that of e in her, or u in fur : the
German poets often rhyme it with with e, (e or a.)

10. Ue, or u, is like the French u.

u. Ai is similar in sound to ei, but somewhat broader.
(See 14 of this section.)

12. An is equivalent to the English on in our.

13. an and eu resemble in sound the English oi, as in
oil.

14. Ei and ^_y have the sound of our / in mine, as pro
nounced by the Americans, (the English draw the corners
of the mouth farther back.)

OBS. It may be observed that ai and ait, in German, as well as in
several other languages, are proper diphthongs, the vowels preserving
their distinct and proper sound : thus, ai is equivalent to d e, and au
to d oo, in English.

15. The consonants/ k, /, m, n, p, q, t, and x are pro
nounced as in English.

16. B and d, at the beginning of a word, have the
same sound as in English ; at the e-nd of a word, b is
pronounced like /, and d like t.

17. C, before a, o, anil u, sounds like k ; before c, /,
and y, like ts.

18. Ch has a sound unknown to our language, which
can be learned from an oral instructor only. It some
what resembles that of our h, with a strong aspiration :
after a, o, and ?/, it is guttural ; for example, in the word
ach* When it follows e, i, d, o, ii, an, or at, it seems to
be sounded more in the palate or roof of the mouth,
as in ich, eiich, etc. We have represented this sound in
the present work by K, distinguished as a small capital.

OBS. Ch, before J radical, (i.e. forming a part of the root of the
word,) has the sound of k : e.g. Ochs is pronounced oks ; Sac/iseii,
sik sen, etc.

19. G, at the beginning of a word, sounds as in the
English word get. In other situations it is usually pro
nounced nearly like the German ch, in which cases it is
represented by G small capital. In some German dia
lects, however, it is sounded in all cases nearly like g
hard in English : ^is usually sounded nearly like / .

20. //"is pronounced only when it begins a word.

OBS. i. When g and h occur in the middle of a compound word,
they have the same sound as when they are initial, provided they
begin any part which is a complete word in itself: thus, in the parti
ciple gegeben, ("given,") the latter g has the same sound as the
former, because it begins the verb geben, (to "give,") from which
that participle is derived. It is sounded in like manner in aufgeben,
(to "give up,") vergeben, (to "forgive,") etc. ff, in similar in
stances, is pronounced: e.g. \ngehabt, aufhalten, etc.

OBS. 2. G and h, occurring after a vowel, lengthen its sound : e.g.
in Tag, Zahl, Floh, pronounced tMc;, tsJal, flo, etc. A silent h has
the same effect though occurring before a vowel, as Thai, (pro
nounced tSiil,) That, (taJt,) and so on. (See Remarks on the German
Pronunciation, at the end of this section.)

21. y has the sound of the English y, (consonant.)

22. Q is only used before ti, and sounds as in the Eng
lish word quit.

23. R is pronounced like rr in the English word terror,
but somewhat more strongly. (See V., 24.)

OBS. Care should be taken to pronounce the r in German dis
tinctly and forcibly. In such words as Berg and Werth, the learner
should be particularly on his guard against allowing the e to become
like short u, as in similar words in English. The e, in such cases,
should have the same sound as in our word merit, so that Berg

* Those who have no opportunity of acquiring this sound from a
German might perhaps learn it from a Scotchman, as the Scottish ch
is essentially the same with the German, though pronounced some-
whal more strongly.

should be pronounced almost as if written baira, (not b&rg ;) IVertk
as wairt, (not wiirt,) but somewhat shorter.

24. S, at the beginning of a word, or between two
vowels, is like z; in other cases it is sharp, as in this. S.&lt;
is always sharp.

25. Sch sounds like the English sh ; sz, like ss.

26. 77i is pronounced like /, as in most other lan
guages.

27. ^sounds like f in English, except when between
two vowels ; it is then pronounced somewhat softer, ap
proximating in sound our v.

28. IV resembles our v, but in pronouncing it the
upper teeth should not be allowed to touch the lower
lip, as is done in uttering the English v. This sound is
indicated by a w marked thus, w.

29. Z and tz sound like ts.

REMARKS ON THE GERMAN ACCENT AND PRO
NUNCIATION.

No general rule can be given for the accent of German
words or names : it may be remarked, however, that the
penultimate accent occurs much less frequently than in
the Spanish or the Italian language. The German accent
is in all respects very similar to the English, differing
widely from the Spanish and entirely from the French.
It is proper to observe, however, that the secondary
accent on compound German words or names is more
distinctly marked than it would be in English in the
same situation : thus, the English say Pe ters-burg, with
scarcely any appreciable accent on the last syllable,
while the Germans say Pe ters-burg , (pa ters-booRC/,)
the last accent being distinctly marked, though decidedly
less than the first.

It is a rule in German that an accented vowel ending
a syllable is long, as in a ber, (a ber,) "but," ge ben,
(ga ben,) to "give," Vd ter, (fa ter,) "father," Id ben, (to
" praise.") The vowel is considered to end the syllable
when followed by a single consonant in the middle of a
word, in which case the consonant always goes to the
following vowel, as in the instances above cited ; but, if
the vowel is followed by a consonant in the same syllabic,
it is generally short, as in fal len, (to " fall,") Mnt tcr,
("mother,") etc. But to this last remark there are
several exceptions. In declinable words ending in a
single consonant, whether monosyllables or dissyllables,
with the accent on the ultima, the syllable on which the
stress of the voice is laid is long, as Bliit, ("blood,") gut,
("good,") Graf, ("count,") Eugen, ("Eugene,") and so
on. This exception may be said to follow almost as a
matter of course from the first part of the foregoing rule ;
for if the vowel in such words as Grafwas short, then in
the genitive and dative (Grafts, Grafe) it must also be-
short, thus violating the rule referred to, or else be the
cause of a very objectionable and inconvenient irregu
larity, by making in the same word the nominative and
accusative short and the genitive and dative long. The
letters and h have the effect of making long the vowel
which precedes them. (See 20 of this section, Observa
tion 2.)

GREEK, (MODERN.)
VII.

1. A a (alpha) is like a in far.

2. E e (epsilon) is like a in fate.

3. H 77 (eta) is like ee in English.

INTRODUCTION.

4. I i (iota) is like e in me or i in fin.

5. O o (omicron) is like o in English.

6. T t; (upsilon) is nearly like the French ?/, (or it.)

7. S2 u (omega) is like o in English, there being no
difference between this and omicron in prose ; in poetry
u is longer.

8. A is like a in _/&gt;/f.

9. E&lt; and &lt;M sound like ee in English.

10. Oy is like our 00.

11. B 5 (beta) is like v in English.*

12. F 7 (gamma) is like g hard, as in , .

13. A &lt;5 (delta) is like /// in //it s, (th.)

14. Z (zeta) is like the English z.

15. 9 (theta) is like //; in // .

16. K K (kappa) is like /.

17. A A (lambda) is like /.

1 8. M n (mu) is like m.

19. N v (nu) is like .

20. H f (xi) is like x.

21. II TT (pi) is usually like the English /; but after ,
(m) it is like b: e.g. t-uTtopof is pronounced em bo-ros.*

22. P p (rho) is similar to the German r.

23. ~L a c; (sigma) is like the English s.

24. T - (tau) is usually like the English t ; after v, (n,)
however, it is sounded like d: e.g. evrbr is pronounced
en- do/ .

25. T v, (consonant,} when before a vowel or the liquids
/, m, n, r, is like our v: e.g. avepvu is pronounced av-a-
rii o, ni ?.df, 3.v-los , avpiov, av re-on ; in other cases it is
like f: e.g. AsvKatYia (Leucadia) is pronounced lef-ka-
Ihee a.

26. &lt;I&gt; o (phi) is equivalent to our f.

27. X x (chi) is similar to ch in German.

28. i i/ (psi) is like fs in English.

HEBREW.
VIII.

As in the case of classical names we have not at
tempted to give the ancient Latin or Greek pronunciation,
so we have never aimed to give the ancient Hebrew pro
nunciation of Scripture names. Nevertheless, that such
of our readers as may happen to be ignorant of Hebrew
may be furnished with a key to the Hebrew forms of
these names, as well as for purposes of comparison with
other languages, we have thought it necessary to present
the following table, exhibiting the form and power of the
Hebrew letters :

ANCIENT HEBREW ALPHABET.

7-
8.

9-
10.

NAME.
a lef

beth or bath

gimel or gee mel

da leth

he or ha

vav or vauv

za yin

iieth or Hath

let or tat

yodh

POWER.
a

v, b

d or dh

(like the Arabic )

* As the modern Greeks have no letter corresponding to our l&gt;,
in order to represent this letter in words or names from other lan
guages they employ /J.TT : as Mwao-pa, BASRA or BASSORA, M77a/X7raj,
I A DO, etc.

Dor

D
jor

NAME.
$ kaf

la medh

mem or mam
jt nun or noon

sa mek

a yin

pe or pa

tsa da
kof

resh or rash
shin or sheen
tav

POWER.

kh, k

a (like the Arabic _)

ph, p (nearly equivalent
to the Arabic .)

k (like the Arabic

sh, s

th, t (nearly equivalent
to the Arabic ,)

HINDOSTANEE.
IX.

1. Hindostanee is the name given to the language formed
by the interfusion of the native Hindoo dialects with the
Persian, which was introduced into India chiefly by the
conquering Mongols under Baber and his successors. It
was called Hindostanee or Hindustani (hin-dus-tan ee)
because it originated in Hindostan,J which is still its
principal seat, although the language is extensively spoken
not only throughout the whole of India proper, but also
in Afghanistan and Beloochistan. It is also frequently
called Oorcloo or Urdu, (oor doo ,) or [the " language of
the] camp," because it was in the camp or army that the
intermixture of the Persian wilh the Hindoo languages
first took place. In writing Hindostanee, the Persian
alphabet, with some slight modifications, is commonly
employed, though the Nagaree (Nagari) is not unfre-
quently made use of. (See Sections XIII. and XVIII.)

2. The pronunciation of the Hindostanee nearly corre
sponds in all essential points with the Persian ; perhaps
the only differences of any importance are in the sound
of the short a Nagaree, which, following the Sanscrit
pronunciation of that vowel, is usually like our short n,
as in but, ihe nasal ;/, (seldom found in Persian,) in Ihe
sounds of kh, gh, th, dh, etc., and in those of the lingual
(or cerebral) d, /, and r. (See Section XVIII. for the
mode of distinguishing, as well as for the pronunciation
of, these letters.)

3. Care should be taken not to apply the pronunciation
of India to Persian and Arabic names of persons who
have never had anything to do with India. While it may
not be improper to pronounce the name of the great
Akbar uk ber, for, though an Arabic name, it was
doubtless so called by a large majority of his subjects,
it would be inexcusable for an Englishman (except
when talking with Hindoos) to pronounce the name of
the Arabian prophet Mo-hum miid or Moo-hum mud,
as it is nearly always called by the natives of India.
(See Table on page 18.)

Ons. There is a remarkable general analogy, both in their history
and in their composition, between the Hindostanee and the English

t These characters are called terminal, being used only at the end
of a word or name.

% It may be remarked that HINDOKTAN or HINDOOSTAN, (the
"country of the Hindoos,") in its strict and original signification,
was applied only to India north of the Vindhya Mountains. The ap
plication of the name to the entire peninsula is comparatively recent.

INTRODUCTION.

languages. In both tongues the staple (if we may use the terrn
was furnished by the native dialects of the country, while the higher
style of speech, and particularly the language of the court, was for a
long time that of the conquerors, Norman-French or Persian ; and
even after the amalgamation of the language of the conquerors am
that of the conquered had taken place to a great extent, it was in both
countries regarded as a mark of rank and high breeding lo introduce
into conversation and into written composition as large an admixture
of the former as possible. The analogy may be extended still further :
as the Norman- French was not the original language of the Normans,
so the Persian was not the original language of the Mongol conquerors
of India, but derived from one of the countries which they had sub
dued and in which they had established themselves.

HUNGARIAN.
X.

1. A, unaccented, is like o in not ; with an accent, (a,) it
sounds as a \\\far, and is always long : thus, Aba Uj-vdr,
the name of a town, is pronounced ob oh oo e-vSR.

2. E, unaccented, is like e in met ; with an accent, (&lt;/,)
it has a sound intermediate between in met and i mpit,
but more prolonged.

3. /, andjy when a vowel, sound like e in me, or i \njlg.

4. O, without an accent, is the same as in English ;
when accented, (6,) it has a longer and deeper sound.

5. [7, without an accent, is like oo in English ; with
the accent, (ii,} its sound is fuller and deeper.

6. Oe or ii, and tie or ii, are the same as in German.

7. The consonants b, d,f, h, k, /, m, n,p, t, v, z, are like
the English.

8. C is not used without being joined with some
other consonant ; cs is sounded like ch in English ;
cz, like ts.

9. G, except when followed by/orj, is alsvays hard,
as in the English word^. Gk sounds like a simple^-.

10. yis usually like e in English; nj is pronounced
oo-e. Dj and gj are equivalent to dy and gy, and tj to ty.
(See 16, 17, and 20 of this Section.)

11. R is like the German ; in other words, it is to be
trilled more strongly than the English.

12. S is like the English sh.

13. Sz is like s sharp, or ss.

14. Ts is equivalent to cs, (or ch in English.)

15. Tz is like cz, (or ts in English.)

1 6. Y, in Hungarian, is nearly always a consonant.
When it follows d, g, I, n, and t, it seems to be blended
with these letters, so as to form but one consonant sound.

17. Dy and gy are alike. Magyar ^ pronounced mod -
yor.

1 8. Ly is like I in Spanish, or Hi in the English word
million. Vdsdrhely is pronounced in three syllables,
va shtR-hel.

19. TVyis like the Spanish , or / in minion. Mdrtony
is pronounced in two syllables, mSn ton.

20. Ty approximates the sound of our ch, bearing the
same relation to / that dy does to d.

21. Zs is sounded like the French/, or zh in English.
OBS. In Hungarian, the accent usually falls on the first syllable.

ITALIAN.

XI.

I. A, in Italian, is like the English a in far, though its
sound varies somewhat in different situations.*

* There are a number of niceties in Italian pronunciation, which,

however interesting to a thorough linguist, cannot properly be noticed

in a work like the present. The difficulty of giving a brief and at the

same time a satisfactory exposition of the principles of this language

2. E has two sounds : (i.) close, like a mfaie; (2.) open,
like e in met.

3. / is like e in me, or i \\\fig.

4. O has two sounds : (i.) close, as in note ; (2.) open,
similar to o in not, but rather broader.

5. U is like oo in English.

6. At and ati, in Italian, are proper diphthongs. (See
VI. 14, Observation.) Accordingly, CAIRO is to be pro
nounced ki ro, AUSA, ow sa, etc.

7. The consonants l&gt;, d, f, /, m, n, p, q, s, t, and v are
similar to the English.

OBS. K, iv, x, and j/are not used by the Italians, except in spelling
foreign names.

8. C and cc, before a, o, and u, are sounded like k ; be
fore e, i, andjy, like ch or tsh.

OBS. Cc should be pronounced more strongly than a singlet. This
remark will apply to all double letters in Italian, as well as in most
other languages.

9. As c, when immediately before a, o, or u, is never
pronounced like ch, in order to express this sound in
such cases, the vowel i is inserted : thus, da, do, du,
are pronounced c/iz, cho, choo. (See table at the end of
this Section.)

10. Ch is employed to express the sound of k before e
and /.

11. G, before a, o, and n, is hard, as in the English word
get ; before e, i, and_y, it sounds like the English/: gia,
gio, giti, are pronounced/a, jo,joo. (See table at the end
of this Section.)

12. Gh is used to express the sound of harcl^, before
e and * .

13. Gli has the sound of the liquid /, (I,) or of Hi in
million: thus, BOGLIO is pronounced bol yo.

14. Gn has the same sound as in French ; in other
words, it is like the Spanish n: e.g. BOLOGNA is pro-
lounced bo-lon ya.

15. //is never sounded in Italian.

16. y, at the beginning of a syllable, is like the Eng
lish;)/) (consonant ;) at the end of a word it is equivalent
to ii, (in Italian.)

17. R resembles the French, but is trilled somewhat
more strongly. (See V. 24.)

18. Sc, before e and i, is like the English sh : e.g. Scio
is pronounced shee o.

19. Z commonly has the sound of dz in English ; zz
is generally pronounced like ts. But to both these rules
there are a number of exceptions. (See Monti s Italian
Grammar, p. 4 and pp. 206-208.)

The follosving table will perhaps enable the readet
more readily to understand the mode in which c and ch,
^and^//, are employed by the Italians :

ca is pronounced k3.
che " " kA.
chi " ke.
co " " ko.
cu " " koo.
cia ! " chi.
ce " " cha.
ci " " che.
cio " " cho.
ciu " " choo.
Oiss. In Italian, the accent of \
on the penultima; but to this gene

ga is pronounced gJ.
ghe " " gA.
ghi " fe.
go " " S-
gu " " goo.
gia " " jl
ge " ji.
g&gt; " " je.
gio " " jo.
gin " joo.
vords ending in a vowel is usually
ral rule there are many exceptions.

is increased by the existence of different dialects indifferent parts of
Italy. It has been deemed sufficient, in this synopsis, -merely to ex-
ilain those principles of pronunciation which appearto be recognized
by the Italians generally.

INTRODUCTION.

NORWEGIAN.

XII.

As a written language, the Norwegian may be said to
be identical with the Danish, since not only the gram
mar, but, with very few exceptions, the words, of both,
are precisely the same. In pronunciation, however, the
Norwegians differ widely from the Danes, while these,
again, differ considerably among themselves. Under
Section III. we have given the elements of Danish
pronunciation as the language is spoken by the educated
classes in Copenhagen. The principal points of differ
ence between this and the Norwegian appear to be the
following: (i.) d in the latter tongue always has its
proper sound, while in the Danish it is often pronounced
like the English th : (2.) g at the end of a word, in Nor
wegian, is usually sounded distinctly as^hard in English ;
(3.) e at the end of a word always retains its distinct
sound ; (4.) on is like the Dutch and English on, (fov.)

ORIENTAL LANGUAGES.
XIII.

1. Under this general term we include all those lan
guages which are neither written in Roman letters nor
in characters that can readily be converted i-.ito corre
sponding Roman letters. (See Preface, p. vi.) In this
sense it would embrace not merely the Asiatic languages,
to which the term "Oriental" is commonly limited, but
also the Russian, which may in one sense be said to
form the connecting link between the Asiatic and Eu
ropean tongues. It is proposed under this head to offer
some remarks and explanations respecting the causes
of the perplexity and confusion in which the whole
subject of Oriental orthography seems at first sight so
hopelessly involved. By a reference to what has been
said on the different sounds of the Arabic tongue, (see
Section I.,) it will readily be seen that, from the different
modes employed to represent with Roman letters the
sounds of many of the Arabic characters, an almost
endless diversity may, or rather must, result in regard
to the spelling of names in which those characters occur.
The confusion is not a little increased by the fact that
the same character has a different power according as
it is employed by Arabian, Persian, or Indian writers.

2. As an illustration of the foregoing remarks, we may
take Olx, an Oriental surname, signifying a " redresser
of wrongs." In this name each of the four letters may be
represented in two or more different ways : I. the f. may
be represented either by^or^// ; 2. the (j: may be repre
sented by j, /, or (supposing it to be doubled) by iy, and
(in English) by ey or e ; 3. the I by d, d, and (in English)
an ; 4. the o may be represented by th or s, (or ss.)
The name may then be written (without impropriety) by
European writers in the following modes : First, as an
Arabic name, in which the o retains its proper sound :
Ghiyath, Giyath, Gheath, Geath, Ghiyauth, Giyauth,
Gheauth, and Geauth. Secondly, as a Persian or Hin-
dostanee name, in which the o is represented by a sharp
s or ss: Ghiyas, Giyas, Gheas, Geas, Ghiaus, Giaus, Ghe-
aus,* and Geans. These sixteen spellings are not all the
modes which might legitimately be used to represent the
above name of four Arabic letters, but they are, perhaps,
amply sufficient to illustrate what has been said above.

3. Another source of perplexity in regard to names of

* So written by Sir John Malcolm.

Arabic origin is the difference which obtains in the pro
nunciation of the fatha, (short a.) In Western Asia it
often approaches very nearly the sound of e in met, (as in
U^j Yemen, (yem en,) the name of Arabia Felix,) while
in some of the eastern parts of Persia the fatha is pro
nounced nearly like a, and in India it is sounded like
our short it, (as in tub.) Accordingly, in Eastern Persia
they say yam an, and in India yiim un, for Arabia Felix.

4. The pronunciation of the Arabic article is of itself
often the cause of much perplexity, first, by the frequent
change of the / to correspond with the sound of the
initial letter of the following word, (see I. 33,) and,
secondly, by the change of the vcnvel, which is variously
sounded, commonly as al or el, often as ool, and some
times as ul. Hence we \\3MzAbd-cl-Malek, Abd-al-Malek,
Abd-ool-Malek, (written also Abd-iil-Malek or Abd-onl-
Malik:) Abd-al- Rahman, Abd-el-Rahman, Abdar-Rah-
man, Abderrahman, Abdurrahman, or Abdmirrahman.

As it would be wholly out of the question for us in
every instance to give all the different spellings of Ori
ental names, and we have not attempted to do so, except
in the case of a very few of great celebrity, (such as Jengis
Khan,) we have thought it might be useful to give the
following table, by glancing at which the reader will
perhaps acquire a greater practical facility in identifying
names which at first sight may appear wholly different
from each other, than he could by a more elaborate or
more scientific explanation of the causes of such diver
sity. At the same time, that he may, if he desires to do
so, clearly understand the principles which lie at the
bottom of all this apparent confusion, we shall refer by
numbers (indicated by figures included in a parenthesis)
to the explanations and remarks made when speaking of
the Arabic alphabet, (see Section I.,) where also we have
pointed out the chief differences between the power of the
letters in that tongue and in the Persian and Hindostanee.

TABLE OF CELEBRATED ORIENTAL NAMES
WRITTEN VARIOUSLY.

Aboo-Bekr, Abu-Beer, Aboubecre, Abu-Bakr, (30,)!
Abou- (or Abu-) Beker (or -Bekr,) Ebubekr, Uboo-
Bekr or Ul/oo-Btikr,} (or -Bnk ker.)

Aboo- (Abou- or Abu-) Talib, (or -Taleb,) Ebu-Thalib,
Ub oo-Ta leb.

Adhad-ed-Daulah, 2 Adadoddaulah, Azad-ed-Daulah,
(or -Dowlah,) (15,) Uz ud-ud-Dow lah.

Adherbijan, Aderbijan, Azerbaijan, (g.)t

1 The "father of the virgin," (i.e. of Ayeshah.)
a The "arm (or defender) of the state."

t The use of the numerals in parenthesis will be clearly seen from
the following examples. Under Aboo-Bel&lt;rwe find 30. By a reference
to this number in Section I., (note t,) we find that fatha is sounded

sometimes like X, sometimes

?, and sometimes like it; hence the

variations of Bakr, Bekr, and Bnkr or Bitkker. Under Adherbijan
we are referred to g in Section I., where we find that while the &gt;_&gt;,
as an Arabic letter, is commonly represented by dh or d, it lias in Per
sian the sound of 2: and so on.

t Major Price, in his " Mahommedan History," (London, iSn,)
writes the name Abu-Bukker, somewhat inconsistently, since the
first part of the name (Abu) is written with the Italian or German
vowels, while the second (Bukker) is written in the English mode,
a mode, moreover, which no Englishman would be likely to use who
had not acquired his pronunciation of the name in India. A worse
inconsistency is found in Major Stewart s spelling of the name of
Hoomayoon, (Houmaioon,) in which the first and second parts of
the name are French, and the third English. He should either have
written it Houmaioun or Houmayoun, or else Hoomayoon.

So generally pronounced in India.

INTRODUCTION.

Aclh-Dhahabee, 1 (or -Dhahabi,) (9,) Al-Dzahabi, Uz-
Zu hiibee,* (30.)

Akbar, J Akber, Ekbcr, Uk biir,* (sometimes improp
erly written Akhbar and Ackbar.)

Alee, 3 Ali, Aly, (or Ally,)-Ul ee.*

Al-kahir-Billah, 4 Al-Qahir-t (or Qaher-) Billah, (21.)

Baber, Babar, or Baubur.

Bayazee.d, Bayezeed, Bayazid ; Bajasid, (German ;)
sometimes corrupted into Bajazet.

Fereedoon, Feridoun, Feridun, Fureedoon ; written
also Pheridun or Phcridoun.

Firdousee, Firdausi, Ferdou9y, Firdousi, Firdusi,
Ferdosi. (For die signification of this name, see FIR
DOUSEE, in the body of the work.)

Hassan, 5 Ha9an, (14,) Hussun.J

Hoolakoo, Houlakou, Hulaku or Iloolagoo, Houla-
gou, Hulagu.

Hoomayoon, 6 Houmayoun, Humayun or Humayoon,
Houmaioon.

Isfendiyar, Asfandiyar, Isfundear.J

Jehan- (or Jahan-) Geeiy Djehan-Ghyr, Djahan-Guire,
Dschehan- (or Dschahan-) Gir.

Kai-Kaoos, Kai-Kaous, Kai-Kaus, Key-Kawuss.

Kereem,* (or Kareem,) Kerim, Karim, Carim, Kur-
reem.J

Khadijah, (or Khadeejah,) Chadidsha or Khadid-
schah, Khadidjah or Khadidja, Kadijah.

Khaled, dialed, Caled.

Khaleel, Chalil, Kliulleel.t

Lokman, Locman, Loqinan, (21,) Lockmaun.

Mahmood-Abool-Kasim- (or Kasem-) Yemeen-ed-
Dow- lah, 3 Mahmoud- Abul - Ka9em -Yemin -eddaulah,
Mahmud-Abul-Kassim-Jemin-eddaulah.

Mansoor, 10 (Al,) Mansour or Man^our, (14,) Mansur,
Munsoor.J

Meerza," Mirza, Mirsa, (German.)

Moaweeyah, Moawiah, Moawiyah, Moawije and Mua-
wijjah, (German,) Moaveah, Mauweiah, (in Latin,
Moawias.)

Modhafar, - Modhofar, Mozaffer, Mozuffur, Muzuffer,
Mooziiffur,J (17.)

Mohammed, 13 Mahomed, Mahomet, Muhammed, Me-
hemet, Moohummud,* (moo-hiim miid.)

Nadir Shah, 4 Nadir (or Nader) Chah, Nadir Schah,
Nauder Shah.

Nasir-ed-Deen, ls Nassireddyn, Nacireddin, (14,) Nas-
ser-u-deen, Nausser-ud-deen.

Nizamee, Nizami, Nisami, Nidhami, (17.)

Noor-ed-Deen 16 or Nour-ed-Din, Nour-u-deen, Nour-
eddyn, Nureddin.

1 "The golden." a The "great," or "greatest."

3 "High," "eminent," "noble." 4 "Victorious through God."

"Beautiful," "handsome," "good."

"Fortunate," "blessed." ~ "Conqueror of the world."

"Bountiful," "generous," "merciful."

3 Yemeen-ed-Dowlah signifies "right hand of the state (or empire.")

10 "The victorious."

11 I.e. Meer-7.dd, or Ameer-Zad, "son of a prince."
11 "Victorious." "Praised."

14 " Wonderful king." "&gt; " Defender of the faith."

" "Light of the faith. V

* Sometimes so written and so pronounced by the English in
India. (See Section IX. 3.)

t Sir G. Wilkinson writes the name of the celebrated capital of
Egypt (Cairo) Qahera.

% So written by Sir John Malcolm, and so pronounced in India.

Nousheerwan, Noushirwan, Nauschirwan or Naoti-
chirwan, Nuschirwan. (See KHOSROO, in the body of
this work.)

Omeyyah, Ommeyah, Ommaiah, Umeyyah, Omaee ;
(in German,) Omajjah, Omijjah, or Umaijjah.

Othman, Osman, Otman, (or Ottoman.)

Roostam, Roostum, Roustam, Roustem, Rnstain, Rus-
tem.

Shah-Alam 11 (or -Aulum,) Chah-Alani (or -Alem,)
Schah-Alam.

Shah-Jehan 1 (or -Jahan,) Chah- Djclian, Schah-
Dschehan or Schah-Dschahan.

Sooleyman, Suleiman, Solyman, Soliman, Souleyman.

Soovorof, Souvorof, Suworow, Suwarow, Su war row,
Souvarof, Suvaroff, Suvorow.

Taimoor or Teemoor, Timour, Taimour, Taimur or
Timur, Tamerlane. 19

Yakoob, Yacoob, Yakoub, Yacoub, Yakub ; Jakub,
(German.)

Yazeed or Yezeed, Yazid or Yczid; Jezid, (Dutch ;)
Jasid or Jesid, (German.)

Yoozuf, Yoosoof, Youzouf or Youzef, louzef; Jusuf or
Jusef, (German.)

The following table of names of a certain kind, classi
fied according to their spelling in the four principal
European languages, will, it is believed, furnish a key
to many of the difficulties which the reader is likely to
meet with in works on Oriental history or biography :

ITALIAN.

ENGLISH.

FRENCH.

GERMAN.

Chengiz,

Tchenguiz,

Tschengis,

Chenghiz,

Tchenghis,

Tscliingis,

Chenghis,

Tchenguis,

Chingiz,

Tchinguiz.

Cliingis,

Tchinguis.

Chinghis,

Tcbinghis.

Jengis,

Djenguiz,

Dsclvengis,

Jengi/.,

Djenguyz.

Jenghis,

Djenguis.

Genghis.

The first of the above spellings are based on the sup
position that the initial consonant in the Mongol name
had the sound of our ch ; while those below (Jengis, etc.)
rest on the supposition that the initial letter had tin;
sound of/. On this question the best Oriental authori
ties are not agreed. It very probably had a sound
somewhat differing from either.

ENGLISH.

FRENCH.

GERMAN.

ITALIAN.

Jaafar,

Djafar,

Dschatar,

Giafar.

Jafar.

Djafer,

Dschafer,

Giaffar.

Jafer,

Djaafar,

Dschnafar,

Giaafar, etc.

Jamsheed

Djamchid,

Dschamschid,

Giamscid.

Djamchyd,

Dschemschid.

Jemsheed,

Djemchid,

Djemchyd,

Djamschid, etc.

of the universe.

A corruption of Taimoor-len;; or Timur-lenk, i.e. "Taimoor

Gibbon, the historian, writes the name Zingis.

II It is extremely common for French writers, in spelling Oriental or
Russian names, to use sch instead of ch, which is more strictly French.
It has not been deemed necessary to present in the table every pos
sible form, such as Djamschyd, Djemschyd, Dgemchid, Dgemchyd,
etc., although these would be perfectly legitimate French spellings.

INTRODUCTION.

ENGLISH.

Jnlian Geer,*
Jehan Gecr

or
Jehangeer,

Khadijah,

Khadeejah.
Meerzn,

Nizamce,

FRENCH.
Djahanguir,*
Djahanguyr,
Djehanguir,
Djeliangtiyr,
Djabanguire, etc

Khadidja,

GERMAN. ITALIAN.

Dschahangir,* Giahanghir.
Dschehangir, Gehanghir,

Mirza,
Nizami,

Noor-ed-Deen,* Nonreddin,*
Noor-nd-deen, Nourecldyn.

Chah-Djahan.

Chnh-Djehan,

Shah-JabSn,
Shah-Jeli &n,
Shah-Jehaim.

Yazeed

Chadidscha, Cadigia.

Mirsa or Mirza. Mirsa or Mirza.
Nisami, Nisanii.

Nureddin,* NureHdin.

Schah-Dschahan,Sciah Giahan.
Schah-Dschehan, Sciach Giacan.

Yezeed,

Yoosiif
or

Yoozoof,

Yoozef,

Zeid or Zeyd,

Zhookofski

or
Zhnokofskce,

Yazid,

Yasid,

Tazid,

Yezid,

lesid.

Youzonf,

Youzef,

Youseph,

lou/.ef, etc.,

ZeJd,

Joukofski,

Joukovski,

Joucofski.

Zhoukofski.t

Jasid,
Jesid,

Jasid.
Jesid.

Jnsuf.
Jusef.

Any number of instances might be cited in which re
spectable English writers use in the same work, and, it
may be, in the same sentence, the English, French, and
German orthography indiscriminately, as Aboo, Abort,
or Abu, Abool-Katisim, Aboul-Kassim, Abul-Kassim,
Arghoun, Feridoon, etc. etc. This is unquestionably a
serious defect in any work, as in most cases the reader
must be wholly at a loss to determine what sound the
writer intends to convey ; yet the universal prevalence
of this practice, and the absence of any settled orthog
raphy in regard to Oriental names, may be justly urged
as some extenuation. But there is another very common
fault, which in our view is far more objectionable, that
of combining French and English or English and Ger
man orthography in the snmc name : as, Abou-Yusoof,
(in which the second syllable is French, the third Ger
man, and the fourth English,) Abou-Aly-Sumjoovee, (in
which the first part is French, and the second and third
English,) Aboushirwan, Aboul-Kausim, (in both of which
the second syllable is French, and the third English,)
Abulfiraclge, (Aboolfaraj,) (in which the second syllable
is German, and the fourth French,) Nour-u-dcen-Mah-
mood, (in which the first syllable is French, and all the
rest English.)

All the examples last cited, and most of the others,
arc taken from Sir John Malcolm s " History of Persia,"

* It may be proper to observe that compound names, like the
above, ( as Jahangeer or Djahanguir, Noureddm or Nureddin, etc.,

lav bi

divided into the

eparate parts,

according to the option of the writer. Thus, we may write Jahangeer
or Jahan-Geer, Djahanguir or Djahan-Gnir ; Nooreddeen, Noor-ed-
Deen. Nomeddin, (or Noureddyn, ) Nour-ed-Din, Nour-Kddin,
or Nour Eddyn : etc. etc. We have, however, in giving the Eng
lish spellings, generally preferred to divide the names into their
separate parts, which appears to accord with the general usage of
our language in regard to compound words of modern origin.

t It may be remarked that French writers sometimes, though
rarely, use zh instead of j in order to represent the sound of the
Russian }K. The Germans often employ sh (s in German being
usually equivalent to our 2) for the same purpose.

a work of decided merit, whose author was not wanting
either in the learning or judgment required to produce
a work essentially free from the above defects, had his
attention been directed to the great importance of con
sistency and uniformity in writings of this kind.

PERSIAN.
XIV.

1. The modern Persian is a mixed product formed by
the union of words derived from the different Aryan
dialects of ancient Persia with the Arabic, which was
introduced into the language by the Mohammedan con
querors of the country. The mixture of these hetero
geneous elements may be aptly compared to that of oil
and water. As in such a mixture we see portions or
masses of each ingredient in contact, but not combined
or assimilated with each other, so in modem Persian
we often find the Aryan and Semitic elements thrown
together side by side, without the slightest attempt to
assimilate or combine them into a harmonious whole.
We constantly meet with scraps of pure Arabic not
merely phrases, but even whole sentences introduced
bodily into a passage of which all the rest is Persian,
both in etymology and grammatical construction. J

2. The Persian alphabet includes, along with the
twenty-eight Arabic letters, these four additional ones:
v_J, (p,) . , (zh,) , (ch,) and u3, (g.) The following
characters have, in Persian, a totally different power
from that given them in the Arabic alphabet, viz. :
O, jjir, and _, which are pronounced like z, and O,
which takes the sound of s. This diversity of sound, as
might naturally be expected, often causes much confu
sion, because European writers are apt to spell the name
according to the language with which they happen to be
most familiar : thus, one who is familiar with Arabic and
but little acquainted with Persian, as pronounced by the
natives of that country, will write Adherbijan, Modhafer
or Modhofar, while those who have learned the pronun
ciation of these names in Persia or India will write
Azerbijan, Mozafer or IMozaffcr.

3. The Persian has also two vowel-sounds unknown to
the Arabic, namely, e and &lt;&gt;. These sounds of yd and
ivaw are usually distinguished from the common Arabic
sounds of the same letters (namely, / or ee and A. or oo)
by the Arabic epithet Mltjhool or Majhtil, (signifying
" unknown,") or Ajcmec, ( Ajcmi,) (i.e. " Persian,") while
the ordinary sound is designated by the term Mtfroof,
(Mti rfif,) that is, " known" or " familiar."

4. It may be observed that the long a (a) in Persian
is considerably broader than the long a in Arabic or in
Sanscrit, though the pronunciation varies somewhat in
different provinces. In the city of Shiraz (where it is
claimed that the best Persian is spoken) the sound of a
is scarcely, if at all, less broad than in the English words
awe, fat I, etc.

t Sir William Jones, in the Preface to his "Persian Grammar,"
gives a very striking illustration of the difference between the crude
mixture of different ingredients composing the modern Persian, and
the more thoroughly assimilated elements of our own tongue, by the
following parallel sentences. The first, exhibiting the structure of
the English language, is from Middleton s " Life of Cicero," (vol. iii.
P- 35 : ) "The true law is right reason conformable to the nature of
things; which calls us to duty bv commanding, deters us from sin by
forbidding." The composition of the Persian is similar to the follow
ing: "The true lex is recta ratio conformable naturec, which by
commanding vocet ad officinal, by forbidding b fraud* deterrent."

INTRODUCTION.

POLISH.

XV.

1. A sounds as a in the English wordy&lt;zr.

2. E, without an accent, like*? in met ; with an accent,
(&lt;/,) like a \\\ fate.

3. /as in marine.

4. 6&gt;, unaccented, as in note ; with an accent, like oo in
^w0&lt;/, or do.

5. /is like oo in moon.

6. Y resembles e in me, but is more guttural, being
similar to * \\\ pin.

7. A sounds nearly like on in French, (ON ;) e is in in
French, (or aN.)

8. The consonants b, d,f,g, (always hard,) A, k, m, n,
[&gt;, s, (always sharp,) t and z, are essentially the same as
in English.

9. C in all cases, even before a or o, sounds like ts in
English ; cz is equivalent to our ch ; ck is like the Ger
man ch.

10. yis like the German, being equivalent to_y con
sonant.

n. L (without any mark) is similar to our /, but
softer ; I is very hard, somewhat resembling the // of the
Welsh.

12. A is like the German.

13. W\s&gt; similar to the German, resembling our v.

14. N, with an accent over it, (;/,) sounds like the
Spanish n.

15. S, marked in a similar manner, (r,) has a sound
blending that of s and y consonant. Sc has a sound
which cannot be given in English : its nearest approxi
mation in our language is sts.

16. Sz is equivalent to sh in English.

17. Z, with a point over it, (4,) is like the French y, or
zh in English.

18. Z, with an accent, (z,) is somewhat similar to the
above, but has no equivalent in our language.

OBS. i. The accent in Polish words or names ot more than one
syllable is nearly always on the penultima.

OBS. 2. The sounds of the letters in Slavonian, Bohemian, and
Illyrian correspond, with slight exceptions, to those of the Polish
language.

PORTUGUESE.
XVI.

1. The vowels a, e, i, o, n, and y, and the diphthongs
li, ay, au,* are essentially the same as in Spanish.

2. Ao and am are pronounced almost ^roN.

3. The consonants /&gt;, d,f, /, m, , p, s, f, v, and z arc
similar to the English.

4. C is the same as in French, differing from the Eng
lish only by sometimes having the cedilla.

5. Ch is the same as in French, or, in other words, is
like our sh.

6. G and j are the same as in French. (See V. 15
and 17.)

7. H, in Portuguese, is always silent. When, how
ever, it follows / or , it renders these letters liquid:
thus, filho ("son") is pronounced feel yoo or fel yo ;
senhora, ("lady,") san-yo ra, etc.

8. M frequently, and sometimes, has a nasal sound.
Sam, like sao, is pronounced almost soux ; alem or aleit
sounds like a-lex .

* / and &lt;yare almost the same as in Spanish, but have a sound
sometimes approaching that of the English long z .
23

9. Qit is pronounced as in French, the n in this case
not being sounded.

10. R is like the French. (See V. 24.)

11. .A is sounded like ch in Portuguese, m sh in English.
OBS. In Portuguese the general rules of accentuation ave similar

to those in the Spanish language. (See XIX. Obs. i.)

RUSSIAN.
XVII.

The Russian is the most important of all the Slavic
family of languages, not merely on account of its being
the tongue of one of the most powerful and most popu
lous empires in the world, but it is probably not inferior,
viewed simply as a vehicle of expression, to any other
member of that family, if we take into consideration all
the qualities which go to form a good language, such as
softness, flexibility, variety, richness, and force. Al
though some of its consonants TT{ ; for example seem
sufficiently harsh to an English ear, it is much softer
than the Polish, and is mostly free from that concourse
of consonants! which makes the latter tongue so formi
dable to foreigners.

The power of the greater number of the Russian letters
is perhaps sufficiently explained in the table on the
opposite page. The following, however, require some
additional explanation :

1. r sounds usually nearly like our hard g, but is some
what more guttural, as if an aspirate were mingled with
the other sound. Occasionally it is pronounced like k,
and not (infrequently, when at the end of words, like
the German ch. It also has sometimes nearly the sound
of our h : and, as the Russians have no other letter to
represent h in foreign names, they use F for this purpose.
Thus, they would write Kopengagen for Copenhagen.

2. E, though generally possessing the pronunciation
indicated in the table, (a or ya,) in some cases takes the
sound of yo or e-o ; it is then usual to mark it thus, e,
as Hece re, "you carry," (pronounced nes-yo te or
nes-g-o/te.)

OBS. i. Tlie omission of this mark sometimes leads to important
errors: thus, Fcodor, ("Theodore,") always in three syllables, is
not {infrequently written and pronounced by foreigners Fedor.

OBS. 2. The varying sound of e (&gt;i or y.l) will explain why certain
names beginning with this vowel are written sometimes with an
initial E and sometimes with Y, as Ekaterinoslaf ov Yekaterinoslaf,
Elisavetgrad or Yelisavetgmd, etc.

3. K is usually sounded as in English, but in certain
positions it takes the sound of kh, (or the German ch.)

4. J has usually the same sound as the English /, but
when followed by the hard semi-vowel i&gt;, or by the
vowels a, o, y, (pa,} it is similar to the Polish -h

5. The hard semi-vowel T&gt; imparts to the preceding
consonant a strong harsh sound, as if it were doubled.
When preceded by n (v) it changes the sound of this
consonant into that olfmff; as, op-iOB B, pronounced
or-loff . Following &gt;K, it changes the sound of this letter
into sk ; as, HO&gt;K1&gt;, pronounced nosh. In like manner,
when it follows f\^\\. changes its sound to t ; and so on.

6. The soft semi-vowel i&gt; usually imparts a soft or
liquid sound to the preceding consonant. Thus, craHt
is pronounced almost stan ; CTOrth, stol, etc.

7. The semi-vowel & is placed after vowel with which
it coalesces, forming but one syllable ; as, /VH pro
nounced da"-! or di ; neii, pa-e or pa, etc.

t As occurs, for example, in such Polish names as the following :
. trzesc, i rzemysl, Skrzenkski, etc. etc.

INTRODUCTION.

The Russian alphabet consists of thirty-six letters, as follows :

., NAME AS PRONOUNCED p NAME AS PRONOUNCED
IN ENGLISH. IN ENGLISH.

&gt;9-

TTIH

20.

21.

&lt;i&gt;

g or gfi

ghi

22.

K (like the German c/j)

23-

tsi

i or yi

ch or tch (equivalent to the

chi

24.

Persian^)

* 5

i3K

/hi

25-

Illm

sha

26.

sh-tsh

sh tcha

e, ?, ye

27.

e mute (making the preceding
consonant hard)

yau

10.

6 or I

28.

i,i

e or we

yar-we

1 1.

29.

y, nearly mute

ya rl

12.

30.

-6

-B

yi or i

ya ty or ya ti

c:n

3 -

14-

32-

u (yoo) or u

yoo

15-

33-

ya or ye

1 6.

F i

34-

fe-ta

17-

35-

e, I

ee /het-sa

1 8.

ess

36.

y, nearly mute, ( ike
a half-uttered i.)

e ori

SANSCRIT.

XVIII.

i. The Sanscrit* (i.e. the "elaborate" or "perfect"
language) was the language used by the more highly
cultivated portion of the ancient Aryan inhabitants
of India, (see ARYA in the body of this work,) and is
still the learned language of their descendants, the
modern Hindoos.! It is regarded as the oldest of the
Indo-European tongues. The character in which it is
written is called Nagarif or Devanagari, (pronounced
da va na ga-ree ,) and, like most other alphabets of the
Indo-European family, it is written from left to right.
The Nagari, (or Nagaree,) considered simply as a phonetic
system, is perhaps the most perfect of human alphabets.
It not only has a separate letter for every one of its
elementary sounds, but it is also remarkable for its ad-

* Written also Sanskrit and Sungskrit. The term is derived
from the Sanscrit particle sftin, nearly equivalent to the Latin con,
"together," (and, like it, often tised as an intensive,) and krita,
" made" or " done. " It signifies " made or done thoroughly," and,
hence, "elaborate," "complete," "perfect."

t It may be said to bear nearly the same relation to the modern
Hindoo dialects that the Latin bears lo the dialects of modern Italy.

t Nagari [ from Nagara, a "city"] signifies "of the city, "and, hence,
"refined" or "cultivated." Deva, (nearly related to the Latin Dens
and Divas,} a Sanscrit word, denoting a "god" or "deity," was often
applied as a term of honour to the Brahmans. (See " Institutes of
Manu," ix. 317, 319.) Devanagari would appear, then, to signify the
"cultivated (written) language of the gods, (or Brahmans,") the use
of it having originally been for the most part, if not exclusively, con
fined to the priestly caste.

mirable classification of these sounds. It consists of
fifty letters, of which fourteen are vowels and thirty-six
consonants, besides various compound characters, which
may be said to be merely abbreviated modes of writing
two or three consonants together.
2. The vowels are

3; c-. u (or 60) 77 e

^
or T a

^ or ai (i.e. a e)

3" T i Jf? ri (or ree) 3fJT T o

3f T i (or ee) &lt;?T II ^T T an (or 6u)

3 ^ u (or 06) rR" H (or lee)

Ons. It will be seen that most of the Sanscrit vowels have two
forms : the first is used at the beginning of a clause or sentence, the
other occurs in other positions, particularly in the middle of a word.

3. The consonants are as follows :

cFf k

W kh

5T g

% gh

3 ng

^ ch

^ chh

^ j

nr jh

3T n

~ t

5 th

3 d

C dh

TJT n

?T t

7T th

C cl

y dh

^T n

q- p

TT ph

^ b

iT bh

^7 m

cT y

&lt;" r

^ 1

cT v

1 lii

OT sh

cr sh

^T s

^ h

. h||

The pronunciation of 5J, in modern India, is like that of our
short n in but. It should be observed that ^J and &lt;vT do not involve
any sound of /, but are similar to our r and /.

II To these may be added ^, Q,) occurring only in the Vedas.

2 I

INTRODUCTION.

4. The vowels are divided into

Short, T% 3" ~3 3? &lt;?[

Long, 337 3" 3T =f3T ?

5. The Sanscrit letters may be classified as follows :

ASl IRA-

VOWEI.S. SHMI- NASALS. MUTES. SHU- TION,

VOWELS. LANTS. liTC.

Gutturals, 33" 5TT 3 Zfi & . *1 % ^

Palatals, 7^^" 0" 3T g- ^ sT f]7 5T
Lineruals, ^T ^T T TTT 7T &lt;7 T 7 T :

y. \

Dentals, c?T r?T c&lt;T ^T ?T T ? y T
Labials, 33; 3" IT qTTTST^T

6. The only Sanscrit sounds of frequent occurrence
which present any serious difficulty to the European
learner are the combinations of the mutes / , g, ch,j, t,
d, t, d,p, and b with h, making kh, (&,)$&, (ST,) {/*, (?T&gt;) al1 &lt;l
so on. It is important to observe that W has a totally
different sound from the Arabic or Persian ^., (equivalent
to the German ch ;) and 5" or V( is pronounced quite dif
ferently from the Arabic O, or our th. The sound of
kh, gh, th, dh. ph, and bh, in Sanscrit as well as in the
modern Hindoo dialects, may be said to resemble that
produced in such English phrases as "bake-house,"
"stag-horn," "hot-house," "bid him," "stop him," etc.,
when these words are pronounced quickly and yet very
distinct! v; with this important difference, however, that the
Indian mute and h are to be uttered with a single impulse
of the voice, and never divided into separate syllables.

1- The dental t (pr) and d, (5",) in Sanscrit, have
essentially the same sound as the Arabic o and 0, (see
Section I. 4 and 8;) but the lingual (cerebral) t ()
and d (Z) have no equivalent either in Arabic or Persian.
They somewhat resemble the English t and d, but are
formed by reverting the end of the tongue far back into
the dome of the mouth : hence the name of cerebrals
sometimes given to them.* The Hindostanee r{~r) is
pronounced in a similar manner. (See 8 of this Section.)

8. It may be observed that in the modern dialects
of India, including Hindostanee, we have, in addition
to the lingual and dental sounds of t and d, n lingual
(or cerebral) r, (not found in Sanscrit.) The Sanscrit STITT
(ghota,) a "horse," becomes in Hindostanee ghora;
JTTiT, (Garuda,) the vahan of Vishnu, takes the modern
form of garur, (pronounced gur oor.) In writing Hindo
stanee with the Nagari alphabet, this lingual r is repre
sented by 3" with a dot beneath, thus, T&gt;, while in the
ordinary (Persian) alphabet it is indicated thus, :: or y.
The lingual t and d in the modern Nagari are written
precisely as in Sanscrit; but in the common alphabet
they are distinguished from o and J&gt; either by having
four dots, as dj, O, or by a stroke placed above, O, 5.

9. In writing Sanscrit, 53" (d) is never expressed
after a consonant, but it is implied after every consonant
unless this be followed by another vowel or by the rest-
sign : thus, chH^rl, (kml,) "lotus," is to be read kamala;
but if the final consonant has the rest sign, it does not
take the d after it, as 1-T^rT, (marut,) " wind."

(For a fuller and more systematic exposition of the
elements, etc. of the Sanscrit language, the reader is re
ferred to the very able article, entitled "Sanscrit," by
Professor Whitney, in the " New American Cyclopaedia.")

* They are called in Sanscrit "mCirclhanya," (from murdhan, the
"head,") because they seem to be pronounced more nearly in the
centre of the head than any other class of letters.

SPANISH.
XIX.

1. The Spanish a sounds as in the English word far ;
t , like a in ale ; i, like e in mete ; o, as in English ; u, like
oo ; andji/, (when a vowel,) like the Spanish /.

2. Ai and ay are like long { j n English. An sounds
like on in our. (See XVII. 13, Obs.) Ei and ey are
pronounced a^e.

3. The consonants^ /, (single,) m, n, /&gt;, s, t, and v are
pronounced nearly as in English.

4. B, at the beginning of a word, sounds as in English ;
but when between two vowels its sound somewhat re
sembles that of v, with this difference, v is pronounced
with the upper teeth placed against the under lip, while
the sound of the Spanish b is formed by bringing the
lips loosely or feebly into contact. This sound seems to
be between that of b and the English w. It is repre
sented by is or V.

5. C, before a, o, and K, is pronounced as in English ;
before e and /, it has the sound of th in the word thin.
In the Catalan dialect it is the same as in English.

6. Ch has the same sound as in English, except in the
dialect of Catalonia, where it is pronounced like k.

7. D, at the beginning of a word, is sounded nearly
as in English, but is pronounced with the tip of the
tongue against the upper teeth, while in pronouncing
the English d the tongue is made to touch the roof of
the mouth. At the end of a syllable, or between two
vowels, d, in Spanish, sounds like the English /// in
this, but is somewhat softer. This sound is usually
represented in the present work by a small capital n.

8. G, before a, o, and //, is hard, as in English.

9. G before e and /, and / before every vowel, are
pronounced like a strong guttural //, similar to the Ger
man ch in ach. This sound is indicated by U, distinguished
as a small capital.

10. Gua and gito sound somewhat like ^wa, giuo, but
the g is so soft that it is scarcely perceived ; so that in
these cases the sound of gu seems to approximate very
nearly to that of the English w. Gu, before e and /, is
usually sounded likc^hard : thus, GUIANA is pronounced
ge-a na. When, however, the n is marked with a diaer
esis, thus, gui, these two letters have the same sound as
when before a or o, and consequently gui is pronounced
give or iue. (See table at the end of this Section.)

11. If, in Spanish, is never pronounced, except in
words beginning with hue, and then very slightly.

12. y : for this letter, see 9 and 18 of this Section.

13. LI (now sometimes written I) has a sound which
combines that of / and y consonant, and is similar to
the liquid / in French : e.g. villa or vtla is pronounced
veel ya ; Llerena, li-ra/na or lya-ra/na.

14. N, in similar manner, unites the sounds of n and
y, and is like gn in French: thus, petia is pronounced
pSn ya or pan ya.

15. Q, in Spanish, is always followed by n. Qn, before
a and o, is sounded as in English, or, in other words, is
equivalent to kw ; before e and /, it is pronounced like k,
unless the u be marked with a diaeresis, in which case it
is like /-TO. (See table at the end of this Section.)

16. A is similar to the French, but is trilled more
strongly. (See V. 24.)

17. T is to be pronounced by putting the tip of the
tongue against the upper teeth.

EXPLANATIONS.

18. X is usually sounded like the Spanish j, which
letter, according to the present mode of spelling, has
been generally substituted for it : thus, instead of the
old spelling XIMENES, XUCAU, etc., we now often see in
Spanish works JIMENES, JUCAK, etc. X, before a con
sonant, or before a vowel marked with this sign, *, is
sounded as in English : Examples, Exterior, Examinar.

19. V, at the beginning of Spanish words, is usually a
semi-consonant, as initial y is for the most part in English
words.

20. Z is to be pronounced like th in thin.

The following table may serve to show more clearly the
manner in which &lt;r, g, j, y, x, and z are used in Spanish,
en is pronounced k:l. | cua or qua is pronounced qu3.

que
qui

gue

is pronounced

gill

gtio

gu " goo.

ja or xa is pronounced nd.

je, xe, orge " " n,i.

ji, xi, or gi " ne.

jo or xo no.

ju or xu " " iioo.

OBS. i. Spanish words or names endiu

cue or qiie
cui or qiii "
cuo or quo "

qua
que
q

gua is pronounced gwd or \va.
giie " " gwA or wA.

gwe or we.

" gwo or wo.

is pronounced tl&.
r ce " " th\.
r ci " " Me.
the,.
Man.

consonant have the

accent almost always on the last syllable ; those ending in a vowel
are generally accentuated on the peiuiltiina. If a word or name be
an exception to either of these rules, in correctly-printed Spanish
works the accent is usually marked; as, C6RDOVA, Al.CALA, JUCAR,
CA.CEKES. It should be observed that the in the plural does not
change the accent: hence casas," houses," though ending in a con
sonant, has the penultimate accent as well as the singular casa, a
"house."

OBS. 2. The Spanish accent, though resembling the German and
Italian, is much less distinctly marked than the accent of those lan
guages, so much so, that it is sometimes difficult for an English
ear to determine positively which is the accentuated syllable. In this
respect it may be said to approximate very nearly to the French.

OBS. 3. The Spanish language as spoken in Mexico and South
America differs in some points materially from the true Spanish.

Thus, 2, and c before e and i, instead of having the sound of ///, are
generally pronounced like s. Among the uneducated classes // is
universally sounded like^: thus, gallo is pronounced almost gi yo.

SWEDISH.
XX.

1. The vowels a and /, and the diphthongs d and d, are
similar to the German.

2. A sounds like the English o. Lulea is pronounced
loo li-o ; Tornea, tor ni-o, etc.

3. , when accentuated, has almost the sound of our
short i prolonged, represented in this work by n.

4. O, at the end of a syllable, is like our oo ; in other
cases, like o in not.

5. U, in Swedish, is a very difficult sound for foreigners
to acquire ; it seems remotely to resemble the French z/,
and to blend (very obscurely) the sounds of the English
t or &lt;? and oo. It has been represented in the present
work by oo, this sound being the nearest to it of any in
our language.

6. Y is the same as in Danish, or, in other words, is
similar to the French 11.

7. The Swedish consonants are, for the most part, pro
nounced like the English, with the exception of/and^-,
(before ^, /, a, o, and ,) which are nearly equivalent to_y
consonant, (g, before a, o, and n, is hard, as in English,)
and of z, which commonly sounds like s, or else like the
English z.

8. Ch initial (except when immediately followed by
r) is sounded like the English ch in child ; in the middle
or at the end of a word it takes the sound of k. Ay sounds
like the English ch in child: thus, Kjoping (written, also,
simply Koping) is pronounced cliff ping. C, (as in Eng
lish,) before a, o, and n, is like k ; before ^, / , and y, like s.
Qv or qu is like qu in English.

9. Sf, followed by/, has the sound of our sh : hence
Stjerna is pronounced she n na. K before e sometimes
takes the sound of our ch: thus, Kellgren is pronounced
chcl gren.

EXPLANATIONS.

SIGNS, ETC. RELATING TO ORTHOEPY.

1. a sounds as a in fate.

2. 5. denotes the sound of a in fare or e in there. It

is used to indicate the sound of the long open c
before r in cases where it would be objectionable
to employ ai. It has not been deemed proper to
use exactly the same letters (without any distinctive
mark) in the pronunciation as in the spelling of a
name ; because if the same letters were used for
both, and the reader should happen to miscall the
name as ordinarily written, he would perhaps be
equally liable to miscall the pronunciation. While,
therefore, the pronunciation of MOI.TERE may very
properly be represented by mo le-aik , it would,
for the reason just given, be improper to repre
sent that of IJEAUCAIKE by bo kaiu , instead of
which we write bo kSk .

3. a is essentially the same as a, but less prolonged.*

* The vowels A, e, and A, though very similar to a, e, (or ee,) o, have

4. a is nearly like the preceding, but more open. It is
used to represent a sound very similar to that of
e in met, (e,) but somewhat longer. (See Intro
duction, V. 7, note.)

5. 3. sounds like a in/if; or father.

6. i (the short sound of a) has a sound between a and

a ; it is shorter than the former, and somewhat
more open than the latter.

7. a (the long sound of a) indicates a sound longer than

a; in the pronunciation of Oriental names it ap
proximates a very nearly.

been deemed preferable in certain cases, particularly in the pronun
ciation of French names, in order to guard against a drawling sound.

For a similar reason, e, in marking French pronunciation, has been
preferred to ee, even when under the full accent.

It may be remarked that long a, (a,) as pronounced in English,
is a sort of diphthong, almost A-e. In pronouncing foreign languages,
this diphthongal sound should be carefully avoided ; the sound of A
should be pure, without any, even the slightest, sound of e after it.

EXPLANATIONS.

S. a has the sound of a mfall.
9. a (or a) sounds as a \n fat, fang, etc.
10. a denotes the long a in Oriental names; it is also
sometimes used in English names to indicate the
sound of a mfall, halt, etc. : e.g. Dal ton.
[I. a is obscure, as in the first and last syllables of

America.

[2. e is like ee; the latter (ee) is mostly used in this work.
[ j. e is like the preceding, but less prolonged.*

14. g (or e) sounds as e in met, pen, etc.

15. has essentially the same sound as the preceding,

but is more open and more prolonged. (See V. 2.)
e is obscure, as in berth, her, rider.
\ indicates the long sound of i in English, as m pine,

triangle, etc.

iS. i or i sounds as i in pin, pit, etc.
19. j is obscure, as vnfir.

5 sounds as o in note, home, etc.

6 is like the preceding, but less prolonged.*
6 (or o) sounds as o in not.

23. 66 (or u) has the sound of u in bull, pull, etc., or of

oo i n good.

24. do sounds as in rule, or oo in moon, noon, etc.

25. 6 has a sound similar to the French eu. It has no

equivalent in English. (VI. g.t)

26. o is obscure, as in Boston, terror, etc.

27. ii indicates the sound of the French u. It has no

equivalent in our language. (V. 5, VI. io.t)

28. u is the short sound of the preceding.

29. U (small capital) indicates the sound of the French

eu, almost like that of our u in fur ; it resembles
the sound of the German o. (V. 10, VI. 9.!)

30. ii denotes the sound of 66, (very short.)

31. H (small capital) approximates v in sound.

32. I) (small capital) indicates a sound nearly like th, (as

in this.) (XIX. 7.t)

* See note * on preceding page.

i These refer to the principles of pronunciation, as explained in

33-
34-

35-
36-
37-
38-

39-

40.
4i.

42.

43-
44-

45-
4 6.

47-

hen a name occurs several times, it has not been deemed
necessary to pronounce it more than once ; in which case the reader
should look for the very first occurrence of the name, where the pro
nunciation will be given. If a name having the same spelling occurs
in several different languages, it will be pronounced but once for each
of the different languages ; that is, the first time that it occurs in that
particular language.

I3P* It may be observed, in regard to the arrangement of the
names in the present work, that if the ordinary names are spelled
differently they are given in strict alphabetical order, without the
slightest reference to the Christian or first names, (which are always
placed in a parenthesis and in a different kind of type ;) but if a num
ber of names occur spelled in precisely the same manner, they follow
the order of the Christian names. Thus, Smith, (CHARLES,) is
given before Smith, QOHN, ROBERT, or WILLIAM.) If it should
happen that both the ordinary name and Christian name of two or
more different persons are exactly alike, then the precedence is de
termined by the priority of date: e.g. Smith, (WILLIAM,) of the
seventeenth century is given before Smith, (WILLIAM,) of the
eighteenth century ; and so on.

lE^** When the same name belongs to a great number of princes
or sovereigns, those of antiquity are given first ; among modern rulers,
emperors are placed before kings, and these before inferior person
ages, princes or dukes. Emperors or kings having the same name
are usually given in the alphabetical order of the names of the coun
tries which they rule: thus, the emperois of Austria precede the

G and K (small capitals) indicate the sound of the

German ch, or one similar to it.
II (small capital) has a sound nearly like the pre

ceding. It resembles a guttural and strongly-

aspirated h. (I. 6, and XIX. g.f)
h Italic is used to represent the undetermined sound

of the so-called aspirated h. (See V. 16.)

I (/ liquid) is pronounced like/// in million ; it blends

the sounds of /and y consonant. (XIX. 13. t)
n in like manner blends the sounds of andji/ con

sonant. (XIX. 14.!)
M and N (small capitals) denote the nasal sound in

French. (V. ig.f)
R (small capital) is to be strongly trilled ; it resembles

the sound of rr in terror.
s is used to denote the sound of a very soft z.
w indicates a sound similar to our v. (VI. 28.t)
ai or ay (unless otherwise marked) is to be sounded

like a \\\fate.

an and aw have the sound of a \nfall.
ey at the end of an unaccented syllable (in English

names) is to be sounded like e or short / .
6" has the same sound as ee in been or i in the first

syllable of spirit.

II indicates a sound similar to the preceding, but
longer ; it is, in fact, the sound of short z (as mpin)
prolonged. (XX. 3-t)

thu or on sounds as in now or our.

, (capital,) like g, denotes the sound of g hard, as
\nget, give, etc.

(capital,) like g, denotes the sound of/ or soft g,
as in gentle.

is mark *-~ indicates that the vowels joined by it
are to be pronounced almost in one syllable, as
BERTHIKR, bR te-i .

the Introduction. The Roman numerals have reference to the sec
tion, the figures to the sound of the particular letter.

emperors of Russia, and the kings of England are given before those
of France, Italy, or Spain.

jJ3=r" When a date in parenthesis is placed immediately after the
title of a work, it always has reference to the time of publication,
which may be, and not unfrequently is, long after the death of the
author.

Sd^" In marking the pronunciation in the present work, our aim
has been not to embarrass the reader with unnecessary marks or signs.
Thus, in giving the pronunciation of the Italian name CIARPI, we
have simply written chaK pee, which gives the pronunciation of this
name as perfectly as chJR pi could do; because, in English, a, im
mediately followed by r and another consonant, always takes its
second, or Italian sound, and ee usually represents the sound of the
Italian z quite as well as e or e could do. For a similar reason, in
such names as ANTUNELLI, pronounced fin-to-nel lee, we have not
thought it necessary to place any marks on the e in the penultimate
syllable, as the English reader would be sure to pronounce the* with
its short sound in this position when followed by two consonants of
the same kind. In all cases, however, when it seemed possible that
the omission of the diacritical mark might give rise to doubt or error,
such sign has been added, since practical utility has been deemed of
more importance than the mere appearance of consistency. Thus, ef
in modern names, even when under the full accent, has been marked
short, for example, in VALDES, v^l-d s ,- because, in accordance
with the usual Latin pronunciation, the e in such positions is com
monly made long, as in SOCRATES.

Fr., French.
Ger., German.
Gr., Greek.

ABBREVIATIONS.
It., Italian. | Port., Portuguese.

Lat., Latin.
Myth., Mythok

Pron., Pronunciation.

Russ., Russian-

Sp., Spanish.
Sw., Swedish.
Turk., Turkish.

PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY

BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY.

Aa, van der, vfn der 8, (CHRISTIAN KAREL HEN-
DRIK,) a Dutch scholar, divine, and writer on natural
science, born at Zwolle in 1718; died in 1793.

Aa, van der, (CHRISTIAN PIETER ROBIDE,) a poet,
born at Amsterdam in 1791, was a grandson of the pre
ceding. Died in 1851.

Aa, van der, (DIEDERIK,) a Dutch painter, born at
the Hague in 1731. His works are commended for grace
and other merits. Died in 1809.

Aa, van der, QAN,) a Dutch biographer of the
present age. He published an excellent " Biographical
Dictionary of the Netherlands," (" Biographisch Woor-
denboek der Nederlanden."

Aa, van der, (PIETER,) a Dutch lawyer and writer on
jurisprudence, born at Louvain. The date of his birth
is unknown. He published a "Commentary on the
Rights of Creditors," ("De Privilegiis Creditorum Com-
mentariuin," 1560.) Died in 1594.

Aa, van der, (PIETER,) a learned bookseller of Ley-
den, flourished in the latter half of the seventeenth and
the beginning of the eighteenth century. Died about

I73-

Aacs. See Acs.

Aagaard, au goRd, (CHRISTIAN,) written also Aa-
gard, a Danish writer of Latin poetry, born at Viborg
in 1616. Died in 1664.

See ROSTGAARD, " Delicise Poetarum Danorum ;" MOLLER,
" Cimbria literata."

Aagaard or Aagard, (NiELS, neels,) a Danish poet,
born at Viborg in 1612, was probably a brother of the
preceding. He was professor of eloquence at Soroe.
He wrote several Latin poems and critical essays, among
which is "Prolusions on Tacitus." Died in 1657.

Aagesen, (SVEND,) svend au geh-sen, [in Latin, SUE -
NO AGGO NIS FII/IUS,] regarded as the earliest Danish
historian, flourished in the latter part of the twelfth cen
tury. He wrote a history of Denmark, extending from
about A.D. 300 to 1187.

See " Nouvelle Biographic Gene rale."

Aali. See ALEE.

Aalst. See AELST.

Aare, van der, vfn der a reh, (DIEDERIK or DIRCK,)
Bishop of Utrecht, and also a powerful temporal lord,
flourished in the latter part of the twelfth century.
Died in 1212.

See WAGENAAR S " Vaderlandsche Historic."

Aaron, n/ron, fHeb. jnnx ; Gr. Aapwv,] the first of
the high-priests of the Israelites, was the eldest son of
Amrain, who was the grandson of Levi. He is supposed
to have been born about 1600 B.C.; but on this point the
different authorities are not agreed. When Moses was
called by Heaven to deliver his countrymen from the
tyranny of Egypt, Aaron was commissioned to assist
him as his spokesman. He died at the age of one hun
dred and twenty-three, and was succeeded in the priest
hood by his son Eleazar. (See Exodus iv. 14 it seq. ;
also Numbers, particularly chap. xx. 23-29.)

Aaron, (HARISCHON, ha re-sh5n, or ARISCON,) a j

rabbi of the Caraites, practised medicine at Constantino
ple in the thirteenth century, and wrote a commentary
on the Pentateuch.

Aaron, [It. ARONNE, a-ron na,] (PiETRO,) a monk,
born at Florence about 1480, was a canon of Rimini.
He published several treatises on music, (1516-45.)

Aaron of Alexandria, a physician who lived in the
first half of the seventh century. He wrote a medical
work, in which the small-pox is first mentioned.

Aa ron-Ben-Ash er, a Jewish rabbi of the eleventh
century, wrote a "Treatise on Hebrew Accents," (1517.)

Aar on-Beii-Jo seph-Sa son, a Jewish rabbi and
writer, lived at Thessalonica about 1600.

Aaron-Ben-Sam uel, a Jewish writer of the seven
teenth century. His chief work is "The House of Aa
ron," (Frankfort, 1690,) which is said to be a very useful
book for biblical students.

Aaron-Margalitha, (-maR-ga-lee ta,) a Polish pro
fessor and rabbi, born in 1665. He was converted to
the Protestant faith at Leyden, and wrote a number of
theological treatises. Died about 1725.

Aaron-Raschid. See HAROUN-AL-RASCHID.

Aarschot or Aerschot, SR sKot, (PHILIPPE de
Croi deh kRwa,) DUKE OF, a Flemish general who
served under Charles V., and afterwards, when the
troubles broke out in the Low Countries, zealously sup
ported the cause of Philip II. of Spain. Died in 1595.

See MOTLEY, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," vols. i. and iii.

Aarsens, van, vSn sR sens, (CORNELIS,) Lord of
Spyck, (splk,) a statesman of Holland, born at Antwerp
in 1543. He was many years griffier ("recorder" or
"registrar") to the States-General, and died at an ad
vanced age.

Aarsens, van, (FRANS or FRANCISCUS,) a distin
guished Dutch diplomatist, son of the preceding, was
born at the Hague in 1572. His talents, address, and
unscrupulousness won the admiration of Cardinal Riche
lieu, who ranked him with the most consummate politi
cians of the age. The unjust death of Barneveldt is
ascribed partly to his intrigues. Died in 1641.

See AUHERY, " Me moires pour servir a 1 Histoire de Hollande :"
MOTLEY, "History of the United Netherlands," vol. iii.

Aarsens, van, (FRANS,) a grandson of the preceding,
wrote a work called "Voyage en Espagne," (1666.) He
was drowned at sea in 1659.

Aartgeiis, ftRt cens, or Aertgen, SRt cen, a Dutch
painter, called also ARTHUS CLAESSOON, (ar tus klSs-
s5n ,) born at Leyden in 1498. He worked with suc
cess in his native city. Died in 1564.

Aartsbergen, fiRts beVGen, (ALEXANDER van der
Capellen, vSn der ka-pel len,) an eminent Dutch
statesman, who was born about 1600, and died in 1656.
According to G. Vossius, he was a man of rare talents
and incredible industry.

Aartsen, (PIETER.) See AERTSEN.

Aascov, au skov, (URBAN BRUUN,) a Danish physi
cian, who served in the navy about 1770.

Aba, ob oh, called also Samuel, of a noble Magyar

e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon}
as k; $ as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; t h as in this. (d^See Explanations, p. 23.)

ABACCO

ABBAD1E

family, became King of Hungary in 1041. as successor
to Peter, whom a revolution had compelled to fly the
country. His injustice and cruelty at length irritated
the Hungarians, who entreated the assistance of the
emperor Henry III. In 1044 a battle was fought on the
Raab, in which Aba was defeated and slain, and Peter
was restored to the throne of Hungary.

Abacco, a-bak ko, (ANTONIO,) an Italian architect of
the sixteenth century, a pupil of San Gallo. He pub
lished a work on architecture in 1558.

Abacco, (or Abaco,) dall , dal-la-bak ko, (PAOLO,) a
Florentine mathematician and poet, who nourished about
the middle of the fourteenth century.

Abad. See ABBAD.

Abad I, II., and III., (Sultans of Seville.) See
ABBAD.

Abadia, a-Ba-oee a, (FRANCISCO XAVIER Ha-ve-
aik ,) a Spanish general, born at Valencia in 1774. Died
about 1830.

Abad y Queypeo, a-bao e ka-pa o, (MANUEL,) a
Spanish bishop, born in Asturias about 1775. He was
imprisoned about 1815 for hostility to the Inquisition,
and was released in 1820. Died after 1824.

Abaelardus. See ABELARD.

Abailard. See ABELARD.

Abata Khan, a-ba ka Kan, son of Hoolakoo, (Hu-
laku,) and grandson of Jengis Khan, succeeded his
father on the Persian throne A.D. 1264. He was a just
and enlightened ruler. He curbed the soldiery, who had
been so licentious under his father, and established order
and justice throughout his dominions. Died about 1280.

Abamonti, a-ba-mon tee, or Abbamonte, ab-bi-
mon ta, (GIUSEPPE,) a Neapolitan statesman, born about
1759. He became secretary-general of the Cisalpine
Republic in 1798, and a member of the executive com
mission at Naples. After the king was restored in 1799,
he removed to Milan, and acted as secretary-general until
1805. Died in 1818.

Abancourt, d , dS bdN kooR , (CHARLES XAVIER
JOSEPH Franqueville frdxk vel ,) one of the minis
ters of Louis XVI., and nephew of Calonne. He was
massacred at Versailles on the gth of September, 1792.

Abancourt, d , (FRANQOIS JEAN Villemain vel -
max ,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1745. Died
in 1803.

Abauo, di, de a-ba no, or Apo no, (PiETRO,) [in
Latin, PE TRUS APO NUS or PE TRUS DE APO NO,] a
learned physician and astrologer, born at Abano, near
Padua, in 1250. He was appointed professor of medicine
in the University of Padua about 1303, and died about
1316. He wrote a work entitled "Conciliator Differen-
tiarum Philosophorum et praecipue Medicorum," the ob
ject of which was to reconcile the various opinions held
by the different philosophical and medical schools ; from
which he has been surnamed Conciliator, " Reconciler."
Another of his works, entitled " On Poisons and their
Treatment," ("De Venenis eorumque Remediis,") though
much celebrated, shows him to have possessed more
learning than originality or cautious observation.

See MAZZUCHELLI, "Riccolta d Opuscoli Scientific! e Filologici,"
1741 ; ELOY, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine," article APONO.

A-ban ti-das, [ ASaim cJaf,] a tyrant of Sicyon, (one of
the small states of Greece,) who obtained the supreme
power about 264 B.C. He was afterwards assassinated.

Abarbanel. See ABRABANEL.

Abarca, a-baR ka, (JOAQUIN,) a Spanish prelate, born
in Aragon in 1780, became Bishop of Leon. He was a
chief of the Carlist party in the civil war which began
about 1833. Died in 1844.

Abarca, de, da A-baR ka, (Dona MARIA,) a Spanish
amateur portrait-painter. She died about 1660.

Abarca, de, di a-baR ka, (PEDRO,) a Spanish his
torian, born in 1619. He belonged to the society of
Jesuits, and was for many years professor of theology
in the University of Salamanca. Died about 1690. His
chief work, "The Kings of Aragon," ("Los Reyes de
Aragon,") appeared in 1684.

Abascal, a-Bas-kal , (JosE FERNANDO,) a Spanish
commander, born at Oviedo in 1743. At 19 he entered
the army, and in 1804 was appointed Viceroy of Peru.
Through his abilities and indefatigable exertions, not

only were the Peruvians preserved in a state of subjec
tion to Spain while other parts of South America were
in open insurrection, but the Spanish arms gained many
advantages over the insurgents of Buenos Ayres and
Chili. In 1816 he was superseded in the government
by General Pezuela, and returned to Spain, where he
died in 1821.

See W. B. STEVENSON, "Twenty Years Residence in South
America."

Abati, a-ba tee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian poet, born at
Gubbio in 1614. He was governor of several cities in
the papal dominions. Died in 1667.

Abati, degli, dal yee a-ba tee, a Florentine family
known in history chiefly through the treachery of one of
its members, Bocco DEGLI ABATI. During a battle be
tween the Guelphs (the party of the Florentines) and
the Ghibelines, (1260,) he cut off the hand of Jacopo del
Vacca, who carried the Florentine standard, which con
sequently fell, and caused the defeat of his countrymen.
For this crime Dante assigns him a place in the ninth
or lowest circle of hell. See " Inferno," canto xxxii.

Abatini, a-ba-tee nee, (Guioo UBALDO,) an Italian
fresco-painter, born about 1600, worked in Rome, and
died in 1656.

Abauzit, i bo ze , (FiRMiN,) a justly celebrated phi
losopher and mathematician, born at Uzes, in France,
in 1679. When he was two years old his father died,
and on the revocation of the edict of Nantes his mo
ther, being a Protestant, was obliged to seek a refuge in
sonie foreign country. Her two sons were sent to Gen
eva, where Firmin soon distinguished himself by his rapid
progress in almost every branch of learning and science.
The fame of Abauzit does not rest so much on his pub
lications as on the opinion entertained of him by his
contemporaries. He not only enjoyed the respect of the
greatest writers and philosophers of France, but received
the most flattering testimonials of regard from other
countries. Sir Isaac Newton esteemed him highly, and,
after having once made his acquaintance, kept up a con
stant correspondence with him. Died at Geneva in 1767.

See SABATIER DE CASTRES, " Les Trois Siecles de la Litterature
Francaise ;" J. J. ROUSSEAU, " CEuvres ;" SENEBIER, " Histoire Ht-
teraire de Geneve," tome iii. ; BERENGER, " filoge d Abauzit."

Abba Arica, ab ba a-ree ka, [Heb. NITIX JON,]
commonly known by the name of RAV, (3"\) a learned
Jewish rabbi, native of Babylon, flourished in the early
part of the third century, fie died 243 A.D.

Abbad, (or Abid,) al/bSd , I., (called also ABOO-L-
KASIM (or ABOUL-CACEM) MOHAMMED, a bool ka sjm
mo-ham med,) the founder of the Abbadite (or Abaclite)
dynasty of Seville, became sovereign of that city about
1023, and died 1042 A.D.

Abbad (or Abid) II., Aboo-Amroo, (Abu-Am-
ru,) al/bad a boo am roo, the second sultan of Seville,
succeeded his father,Aboo-l-Kasim, (Abii l-Kasim,) about
1042, aged 26 years. He was an able and successful
general, and was well versed in the learning and science
of the times. In splendour and luxury he rivalled the
most powerful sovereigns of the East ; but all his glory
was stained by his sanguinary cruelty. He used to
keep, it is said, in a private apartment, the skulls of all
the chiefs and princes who had fallen into his hands,
and paved the alleys of his gardens with those of infe
rior rank. He died in 1069.

Abbad (or Abad) III., Moorish King of Seville, born
in 1039, was a son of Abbad II. He was a brave and
prudent ruler, and patronized arts and learning. He was
deposed by Yoosuf, (Yusuf,) King of Morocco, in 1091,
and died in 1095.

Abbadie, t bs de , (JACQUES,) a distinguished Prot
estant divine, born in Beam, in the south of France, in
1658. His " Treatise on the Truth of the Christian Reli
gion" ("Traite de la Verite de la Religion Chretienne,"
2 vols., 1684) was received with great favour both by
Catholics and Protestants, and still enjoys a high repu
tation. He was the author of several other works of less
note. He preached for some time in London, and after
wards became Dean of Killaloe, Ireland. Died in London
in 1727.

See NICERON, "Me"moires," and "Biographia Britannica."

Abbadie, d , dfbt cle , (ANTOINE and ARNOULD

a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mt; n6t; good, moon;

ABBAMONTE

2 7

ABBOT

MICHEL,) two brothers of Irish origin, but citizens of
France. They made some scientific researches in Abys
sinia, where they passed about five years, 1840-45.

Abbamonte. See AKAMONTI.

Abbas I., or Shah Abbas, shah ab bas , (i.e. "King
Abbas,") surnamed the Great, King of Persia, was born in
1557. His father, Mohammed Meerza, whose want of capa
city rendered him unpopular, was deposed by the discon
tented nobles, and Shah Abbas succeeded to the throne
at the age of twenty-five. He exhibited an energy and wis
dom which commanded the respect alike of his subjects
and of his enemies. After having healed the dissensions
and curbed the lawlessness which had prevailed among
his nobles, he marched against the Turks, who, with an
army of 100,000 men, were then ravaging the Persian
provinces on the north. The army of Abbas consisted
of scarcely more than 60,000 men ; but it had been dis
ciplined under the direction of two English gentlemen,
Sir Anthony and Sir Robert Shirley, and was provided
with an efficient artillery. In August, 1605, a battle was
fought, in which the Turks suffered a total defeat. The
Persian king recovered all his lost provinces, and was
not molested by the Turks during the remainder of his
reign. He died in 1627.

See MALCOLM, " History of Persia," 1829; " Travels of the Broth
ers Shirley," 1825.

Abbas II., Shah of Persia, born about 1631, succeeded
his father Sufi, or Sophy, in 1641. He possessed some
good qualities, and was noted for his liberal treatment
of the Christians and other foreigners in his dominions.
Died in 1666.

Abbas III., King of Persia, born in 1731, was the last
king of the dynasty of Sophys. He was a son of Shah
Tamasp, who was dethroned by Nadir Shah. Died in
childhood in 1736.

Abbas, or more fully Abbas-Ibn-Abd-il-Moot-
talib, (or -Mottalib,) ab bSs Ib n abd-il-moot ta-lib,
written also Abbas-Beii-Abdel-Mottaiib, a paternal
uncle of Mohammed, born at Mecca about 566 A.D.,
was the ancestor of the dynasty of Abbassides. He
fought against Mohammed at the battle of Bedr, but
afterwards was converted to the cause of that prophet,
to whom he rendered important services. (See MOHAM
MED.) Died in 652 A.D.

See CAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL, " Essai sur 1 Histoire des Arabes."

Abbas, ab bss , (PASHA,) Viceroy of Egypt, born at
Yedda, Arabia, in 1813, was a grandson of Mehemet
Ali. He succeeded his uncle Ibraheem in November,
1848. Died in 1854.

Abbas-Meerza, (-Mirza,) ab bas meeR zt , son of
Fatah Alee Shah, King of Persia, was born about 1785.
He was distinguished for his zealous and enlightened
efforts to introduce into his own country the arts, sci
ences, and military tactics of Europe. He died in 1833.

Abbassah, ab-ba sa, a pasha of Erzeroom, distin
guished first for his successful rebellion against the sul
tan Amurath (Murad) IV., and afterwards for his great
favour and influence with that monarch. At last, how
ever, he fell a victim to the suspicions of his sovereign,
and was executed in 1634.

Abbassides or Abbasides, ab-bas sidz, singular,
AliHASSiDE, ab-bas sld, [Fr. pron. f bt sed ; Ger. AB-
BASSIDEN, ab-bas-see den ; Lat. ABBAS ID/E; called bv
the Arabs BENEE (BENI) ABBA S, i.e. "sons or descend
ants of Abbas,"] the name of the most illustrious dynas
ty of caliphs. They traced their genealogy to Abbas the
uncle of Mohammed, and reigned at Damascus and after
wards at Bagdad from 749 to 1258 A.D. See ABOO-L-
ABBAS-ABDALLAH.

Abbate, ab-ba ta, or Abate, a-ba ti, (ANDREA,) a
Neapolitan painter of natural history and inanimate ob
jects. Died in 1732.

Abbate, ab-ba ti, Abbati or Abati, a-ba tee, (NICH
OLAS, or NICCOLO,) a celebrated Italian painter, born at
Modena abut 1512. Although his productions rank
him with the greatest Italian masters, very little is known
of the circumstances of his life. He died in Paris in
1571. Among his works were frescos at Fontainebleau.
His oil pictures are very scarce.

See VEDRIANI, " Vite del Pittori Modenesi."

Abbate or Abati, (PIETRO PAOLO,) a brother of

Niccolo, noticed above, was a skilful painter of battles
and horses, at Modena. Died about 1580.

Abbate, dell , clcl-lab-ba ta, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
painter and modeller, worked at Modena. Died in 1557.

Abba-Thulle, ab ba t hul lee, a king of the Pelew
Islands, who hospitably entertained the crew of the Eng
lish ship Antelope, wrecked on an island of that group
in 1783. Struck with admiration on witnessing for the
first time the effect of fire-arms, he prevailed on Captain
Wilson, commander of the Antelope, to assist him in
his contests with the neighbouring islanders. The allied
forces, armed with "thunder and lightning," easily sub
dued their enemies, destitute of these novel and terrific
implements of war. When his English friends were
about to return to their native country, the king intrusted
to their care his son Lee Boo, that he might visit Europe.

See KEATE S "Account of the Pelew Islands, from the Journal of
Captain Wilson."

Abbati, ab-ba tee, or Abbatio, db-ba te-o, (BALDi
ANGELO,) commonly called ABBA TIUS, a physician and
naturalist, who flourished about the middle of the six
teenth century.

Abbatini, ab-ba-tee nee, (ANTONIO MARIA,) an Ital
ian composer of music, who flourished in the first half
of the seventeenth century. Died about 1675.

Abbatucci, ab-ba-toot chee, (CARLO, or CHARLES,)
a Corsican general, born in 1771, was a son of Giacomo
Pietro. He gained the rank of general of division by
his conduct at the passage of the Lech in 1796. He was
killed at Huningue in 1796.

Abbatucci, (JACQUES PIERRE, or GIACOMO PIETRO,)
a Corsican, who was a lieutenant under General Paoli,
and after various changes of fortune was raised to the
rank of a general of division in the French army. Born
1726, died 1812.

See JACOBI, " Histoire de la Corse ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."

Abbatucci, QACQUES PIERRE CHARLES,) a French
lawyer, born in Corsica in 1791, was a grandson of
Carlo A., noticed above. He was elected to the Con
stituent Assembly in 1848, and became a partisan of
Louis Napoleon, who appointed him minister of justice
about 1852. Died in 1857.

Abbeville, d , dfb vfel , (PERE (paiR) CLAUDE,) a
Capuchin, who wrote a history of the French mission to
the island of Maranham, on the coast of Brazil, entitled
" Histoire de la Mission des Peres Capucins en 1 Isle de
Maragnan." He gives an interesting account of the
character and customs of the natives of that island and
the neighbouring continent. The mission alluded to was
undertaken in 1612.

Abbiati, ab-be-a tee, (FiLiPPO,) an excellent Italian
painter, born at Milan in 1640. He painted both in oil
and fresco with great facility. Among his best works
is a fresco of "John the Baptist preaching in the wilder
ness." Died at Milan in 1715.

Abbiati, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter and engraver,
flourished at Milan about 1700.

Abbon, i boN , [in Latin, AB BO CER NUUS, "Abbon
the bent or bowed down,"] a learned French monk, who
flourished about 900. He wrote a Latin poem on the
siege of Paris by the Northmen, (A.D. 885-6.)

Abbon of Fleury, [in Latin, AB BO FLORIACEN SIS,]
an eminent ecclesiastic of the tenth century, born near
Orleans in France. He was one of the most learned
men of his age, and after he was elected Abbot of Fleury
showed himself a patron of learning. He died in 1004.

Abbondaiiti, ab-bon-dan tee, (ANTONIO,) sometimes
called ABUNDAN TIUS OF IMOLA, (ee mo-la,) an Italian
historian and poet, lived about 1625. He wrote an ac
count of the war in the Low Countries, 1559-1609.

Ab bot, (AniEL,) an American divine, born at An-
dover, Massachusetts, in 1770. He died in 1828, on his
return from Cuba, which he had visited on account of
his health. A posthumous volume of letters written
while in that island, evinces strong powers of observation
and considerable talent for description.

Abbot, (BENJAMIN,) LL.D., an American teacher,
born about 1 763, was for half a century the principal of
Phillips Academy, at Exeter, New Hampshire. He
numbered among his pupils Daniel Webster, Edward

as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)

ABBOT

ABDALLAH

Everett, Jared Sparks, George Bancroft, and John G.
Palfrey. Died in 1849.

Ab bpt, (CHARLES,) LORD COLCHESTER, a British
statesman, born at Abingdon in 1757, was educated at
Oxford, and was called to the bar about 1 784. He was
elected to Parliament in 1795, showed himself a warm
supporter of Pitt, and distinguished himself by his talents
for business and his public spirit. He was the mover of
the bill which in 1800 authorized the first census of
the population of Great Britain ever taken. In 1801
he became chief secretary for Ireland. He was speaker
of the House of Commons from February, 1802, until
May, 1817, when he resigned on account of ill health,
and was raised to the peerage as Baron Colchester. He
had performed his duties as speaker to the general satis
faction. He died in 1829, leaving two sons.

See "Gentleman s Magazine" for May, 1829; "Annual Obituary,"
1830.

Abbot, (GEORGE,) an English prelate, born at Guild-
ford, Surrey, in 1562. He studied at Oxford, took orders
in 1583, became a very popular preacher, and was em
ployed in the translation of the Bible authorized by King
James in 1604. He was one of eight divines who trans
lated the Four Gospels and the book of Acts. In 1609
he obtained the see of Lichfield, from which he was
translated to the see of London in 1610. He was ap
pointed Archbishop of Canterbury in January, 1611. He
was a zealous Calvinist, both before and after his high
promotion. In the latter part of his life he favoured the
popular party, but his influence in the church and state
was ruined by the ascendency of Laud, who had long been
his rival and adversary. Among his works is a " Brief
Description of the Whole World," (1634.) Died in 1633.

See WILLIAM RUSSELL, "Life of George Abbot," 1777; GARDI
NER, "History of England from 1603 to 1616."

Abbot, (GEORGE,) a nephew of Archbishop Abbot,
was born about 1602. He fought against the royalists
in the civil war. He published "The Book of Job Para
phrased," (1640.) Died in 1648.

Abbot, (LEMUEL,) an English portrait-painter, born
about 1760, worked in London, and was well patronized.
Most of his portraits are considered to be excellent like
nesses. Among his works are portraits of the poet
Cowper and Lord Nelson. Died in 1803.

Abbot, (Sir MAURICE or MORRIS,) a distinguished
merchant of London, was the youngest brother of Arch
bishop Abbot. He was appointed one of the council for
settling the colony of Virginia in 1624, and became gov
ernor or chairman of the East India Company in 1633.
Died in 1640.

Abbot, (ROBERT,) a learned divine, born at Guildford
in 1560, was a brother of Archbishop Abbot. He was
a popular preacher, a chaplain to James I., and King s
professor of divinity at Oxford. In 1615 he became
Bishop of Salisbury. He was a strenuous opponent of
Laud s opinions and church policy. Among his works
is a "Defence of the Royal Supremacy," in Latin, (1619.)
He was esteemed a man of more profound learning than
the archbishop. Died in 1617.

See "Biographia Britannica;" WOOD, " Athense Oxonienses."

Abbot, (ROBERT,) an English Puritan divine, became
vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and minister of Southwick in
Hampshire. He published, besides other works, " The
Trial of our Church-Forsakers," (1639.) Died about 1655.

Abbot, (SAMUEL,) born at Wilton, New Hampshire,
in 1786; died in 1839. He invented a process of ex
tracting starch from the potato.

Ab bott, (CHARLES,) LORD TENTERDEN, an emi
nent English judge, was born at Canterbury in 1762,
and studied at Oxford. He was admitted to the bar in
1705, and in 1802 published a "Treatise on the Law of
Merchant Ships and Seamen," which has since been re
garded in England and the United States as the stand
ard work on maritime law. He became a judge in the
Court of Common Pleas in 1816. Lord Ellenborough
having resigned his position as Lord Chief Justice of the
King s Bench in 1818, Mr. Abbott succeeded him, and
in 1827 was raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord
Tenterden. He died in November, 1832. He was a firm
adherent of the Tory party. His judicial merits were
of a very high order. According to some, he excelled

Lord Mansfield in industry and learning, and equalled
him in acuteness of perception and power of reasoning.

See LORD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. iii. ;
Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; also a criticism on Lord
Tenterden s professional character, by BROUGHAM, in the " Edinburgh
Review," vol. Ixix. p. 14.

Abbott, (Rev. JACOB,) a popular American author,
born at Hallowell, Maine, in 1803. He graduated at
Bowdoin College in 1820. Few writers have given to
the public a greater number of volumes. Among them
may be mentioned "The Young Christian;" "The
Corner-Stone ;" "A Series of Histories of Celebrated
Sovereigns;" "The Rollo Books," 28 vols.; "Harper s
Story-Books," 36 vols., etc. etc. Mr. Abbott has ad
dressed himself principally to the young, with whom his
works have been exceedingly popular. Nearly all his
books have been republished in England, and some, it
is said, have been translated into various European and
Asiatic languages.

Abbott, (JoHN S. C.,) an American author, brother
of the Rev. Jacob Abbott, was born at Brunswick, Maine,
in 1805. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825,
studied divinity at the Theological Seminary in Anclover,
Mass., and was subsequently minister in Worcester and
Roxbury. Among his principal works may be named
the "Mother at Home," (1833;) "Histories of Marie
Antoinette, Josephine, Madame Roland, Cortez," etc.,
forming a series in six vols. ; " History of Napoleon
Bonaparte," 2 vols. Svo; " History of the French Revo
lution," and " History of the Civil War in America," 2
vols. 8vo, 1863-66. Most of his books have obtained
an extensive circulation. He is a pleasing and animated
writer, but as a historian he is scarcely to be relied on.
His " History" of Napoleon, in particular, is perhaps the
most remarkable example of indiscriminate and extrava
gant eulogy ever given to the world under the august name
of History. He has recently published a " History of Na
poleon III., Emperor of the French," (1868,) which is said
to possess the merits and demerits of the preceding work.

Abbt, apt, (THOMAS,) an eminent German writer,
born at Ulm in 1738. He studied at the University of
Halle, and in 1761 was appointed professor of mathe
matics in the University of Rinteln. Here he wrote his
two most celebrated works, "On Merit," ("Vom Ver-
dienste," 1765,) and "On Dying for one s Native Coun
try," ("Ueber den Tod fur s Vaterland," 1761.) He was
afterwards invited by Count William of Lippc-Schauen-
burg to his court at Biickeburg, where he died in 1 766.
Like Lessing, he exerted himself to improve and refine
the German language, and had he lived longer his name
would undoubtedly have become one of the most distin
guished in his country s literature.

See NICOLA I, " Ehrengedachtniss des Herrn Thomas Abbt," 1767 ;
WOLF, " Encyklopaedie der Deutschen National-Literatur;" MEU-
SEL, " Dictionnaire des Litterateurs d Allemagne."

ABD, an Arabic word signifying "servant," and form
ing the prefix in many names; as ABD-ALLAH, (AiiDAL-
LAH,) the "servant of God."

Abd-al-Kadir. See ABD-EL-KADER.

Abdallah, ab-dal lah, (almost ab-dul lah.) or Abdul
lah, ab-dool lah, the last shereef (sherif ) or prince of the
Wahabites, was born about 1740. Having been captured
by Ibrahcem (Ibrahim) Pasha, he was executed in 1818.

Abdallah, (or Abd-Allah,) Abu-1-Abbas. See
ABOO-L-ABBAS-ABDALLAH.

Abdallah- (or Abdullah-) Ibn-Abd-il-Moottalib,
(-Tb n Jb dil motit ta-lib,) the father of the prophet Mo
hammed, is said to have been distinguished for his virtue
and personal beauty. Died about 570 A.D.

See ABDALI.AH-BEN-ABDELMOTTALIB, in the " Nouvelle Bio
graphic GeneVale."

Abdallah-Ibn-Al-Aftas, (-al-af tas,) the founder of
the dynasty of Benee Al-Aftas, was born at Mequinez
in Africa about 1004. He possessed eminent military
talents, and was surnamed Al-Mansoor, or "the vic
torious." He died about 1060.

Abdallah-Ibn-Balkeen, (or -Balkin, -bal-keen ,)
the fourth and last sultan of Granada; dethroned (A.D.
1090) by Yoosuf, whom he had invited from Africa to as
sist him against Alphonso I. of Castile. He was a brave
and enlightened monarch. He was a patron of science,

a, e. T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, ?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good, moon;

ABDALLAH

ABD-EL-MALEK

and wrote a learned and valuable commentary on the
Koran.
Abdallah-Ibn-Koteyba, (-Coteyba.) See IBN-

KOTEYBA.

Abdallah-Ibn-Mohamnied, (-Tb n mo-ham med,)
the seventh sultan of Cordova of the dynasty of Omeyyah,
ascended the throne in 888, and died in 912. He was a
poet and a patron of literature.

Abdallah- (or Abdullah-) Ibnool-Fara-dhee,
(-Ib-nul-Faradhi, ib nool fa ra-dhee,) a Mohammedan
historian, born at Cordova in 962. He was killed at the
taking of his native city by Suleyman, 1013.

Abdallah- (or Abdullah-) Ibnool-Hijaree, (-Ib-
uul-Hijari, ib nool he-ja ree,)a celebrated Mohammedan
historian, born in the territory of Guadalajara in 1105.
He was the author of a valuable and voluminous history
of Spain, most of which is lost. He died about 1195.

Abdallah-Ibii-Sa d (-sad or -sa d) was one of the
earliest converts to the Mohammedan faith, and was em
ployed by the prophet to write down his pretended reve
lations. He was afterwards appointed governor of Egypt,
under the caliph Othman, about the year 646. On the
death of the caliph, in 656, he was deposed ; but the year
of his death is unknown.

Abdallah-Ibn-Yaseen, (or -Yasin,) -ya seen , the
founder of the dynasty of the Almoravides, was born at
Nafees, a little town in North Africa. He began his
career as a zealous teacher of religion, about the year
1041. His followers were called ALMORABITOON, "men
devoted to the service of God," (whence the European
name ALMORAVIDES.) At first he contented himself with
forcibly converting the pagan tribes of the Berbers to Mo
hammedanism, but finally aspired to the entire subjuga
tion of Africa and the overthrow of the ruling dynasty
of Zenatah. After entire success had crowned his under
taking, although he exercised all the functions of royalty,
he never assumed the titles, but contented himself with
the name of Fakih, (fa-keeh ,) or "Theologian." He
died in 1059. His successors ruled over the greater
part of North Africa and Spain for nearly a century.

Abdallah-Ibii- (or Ben-) Zobeyr, (or -Zobair,) -zo-
baR r , surnamed Aboo-Beker or Abu-Bekr, a boo
bck er, Caliph of Mecca, was born in 622. He maintained
his independence against the Omeyyah dynasty from 680
till 692, when he was conquered and slain by Abdel-
Malek-Ibn-Merwan.

See ABDALLAH-BEN-ZOBAIR, in the " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."

Abdallatif or Abdallatiphus. See ABD-EL-LATEEF.

Abdalmalek or Abd-al-Malik. See ABD-EL-
MALEK.

Ab-da-lon y-mus or Ab-do-loiil-mus, a Sidonian,
raised by Alexander the Great from the occupation of a
gardener to the throne. He was descended from the
kings of Sidon.

Abdalrahman. See ABD-ER-RAHMAN.

Abdal-Wahab. See ABD-EL-WAHAB.

Ab das, [Gr. "ASJac,] Bishop of Susa, in Persia, offend
ed the Guebers, or fire-worshippers, by burning one of
their temples, for which he was put to death in 430 A.D.

Abdelaziz, ab del-a-zeez , or Abdu-1-aziz, ab doo-
la-zeez , (Anglicized pron. ab-da-la ziz,*) written also Ab-
dalazis and Abdelasis, the son of Moosa, (Musa,)
was the third governor of Spain after its conquest by the
Arabs. He was assassinated in 716, at the instigation
of the caliph, against whom tie had revolted.

Abdelaziz or Abdulaziz, (Abul-Hassan, 3/bool
has san,) the first sultan of Valencia, was grandson of
the famous Al-Mansoor. He adorned his capital with
magnificent gardens and buildings. Died about 1060.

Abd-el-Baki, (or -Backi.) See BAKEE.

Abd-el-Hakk, abd el hak, (Ibn-Glialeeb or -Gha-
lib, Tb n Ga-leeb ,) a Mohammedan divine and poet, born
in the province of Granada in 1088. He wrote a volumin
ous commentary on the Koran, which was highly es
teemed by the Spanish Moslems. Died 1152.

Abd-e 1-Kader, abd el-ka der, (Ibn-Mehi-ed-Deen,

*" The regal seat
Of Abdalazis, ancient Cordova."

SOUTHEY S Roderick.

Tb n meh/hl-ed-deen ,) (see remarks on Oriental names, in
the Introduction,) one of the most remarkable men of
whom history makes mention, was born near Mascara,
Algeria, about 1807. His father, Mehi-ed-Deen, was a
Maraboot (Marabout) or religious noble of great influ
ence. Having become distinguished for his piety and
talents, Abd-el-Kader was chosen emir of the Arab
tribes in Algeria soon after that region was invaded by
the French in 1830. He attacked Oran in 1832, but,
after the most determined and repeated assaults, was
repulsed by the French artillery, and in 1834 concluded
a treaty with the French general, who recognized him as
Emir of Mascara and Oran. In 1835 he defeated a
French army at Macta. After the victory of General
Bugeaud at Sikka, 1836, the war was suspended by a
treaty, (1837.) Hostilities were renewed in 1839 by the
Arabs, who were stimulated against the infidel in
vaders by fanaticism as well as patriotism. In the long
contest which ensued against a power immeasurably
superior to his own, Abd-el-Kader displayed remark
able energy, skill, presence of mind, and fertility of re
sources, combined with administrative talents of the
highest order ; but he was finally compelled to surrender,
in December, 1847, which he did on condition that he
should be sent to Alexandria or St. Jean-d Acre. By a
flagrant violation of public faith, he was sent to France,
and detained as a captive until about the end of 1852,
when he was released by the order of Louis Napoleon.
He has since resided chiefly at Brussa and Damascus.

While Abd-el-Kader was imprisoned in France, Gen
eral Daumas, who had charge of him, wrote to one of
his friends, " You are going to see the illustrious pris
oner of the chateau of Pau. . . . You have known
Abd-el-Kader in his prosperity, at a time when, so to
speak, all Algeria acknowledged his rule. Well, you
will find him greater and more extraordinary in his ad
versity than he was in his prosperity." In 1860, when
all the Christian population of Syria was threatened
with massacre, Abd-el-Kader protected, with sleepless
vigilance and at the imminent peril of his own life, many
thousands of both sexes until the danger was past.

Abd-el-Kader excelled in all martial exercises. As
an equestrian he was unrivalled, even among a people
whose warriors may be said to live on horseback. His
quickness of intellect and his memory were extraor
dinary. At the age of fourteen he already knew the
Koran by heart. His literary attainments would have
conferred distinction even upon one who had devoted
his whole life to peaceful and uninterrupted study. In
addition to his other accomplishments, he was endowed
with a graceful and spirit-stirring eloquence.

See "Life of Abd-el-Kader," written from his own dictation, and
compiled from other authentic sources, by COLONEL CHURCHILL,
London, 1867; also the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."

Abd-el-Kader-Ghilanee, (-Ghilani,) abd el-ka der
ge-la nee or ce-la nee, an eminent Persian doctor of the
Soofee (Sufi) sect, flourished about the middle of the
twelfth century. Like the orthodox Mohammedans, the
Soofees believe in one eternal God ; but their views of
a future state are more spiritual than those taught by the
Koran. Abd-el-Kader \trote various works on the doc
trines of the Soofees, some of which are still extant.
Died at Bagdad in 1165.

Abd-el-Kadir. See ABD-EL-KADER.

Abd-el-Lateef or Abdellatif, ab del-la-teef, or
Abdullattif, ab dool-la-teef, an eminent Arabian his
torian and physician, born at Bagdad in 1 162. He wrote
an important work on the history, antiquities, and geog
raphy of Egypt, of which De Sacy published a French
version entitled "Relation de 1 Egypte," (1810.)

See WUSTENFELD, " Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte;" "Nou
velle Biographic GeneVale."

Abd-el-Malek or -Malik* ab del-mt lek or-mal ek,
(Ibn-Habeeb or -Habib, Tb n ha-beeb ,) a famous
Mohammedan historian and divine, born at Cordova in
So i; died 853.

Abd-el-Malek,* (Ibn-Koreyb ko-rab ,) generally

* It should be observed that the Arabic words Malek (mM ek) (writ
ten also Melek, ra&l ek) and Malek (md lek) differ in signification 33
well as pronunciation : the former signifies "king," the latter "mas
ter" or "possessor."

as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Jl^f^See Explanations, p. 23.)

ABD-EL-MALEK

ABDIAS

called ALASMAEE, (ALASMA !,) al-as ma-ee , a celebrated
Mohammedan doctor, born at Bassora about 740. He
possessed an extraordinary memory, and is said to have
known by heart above 16,000 poems. Haroun-al-Raschid,
hearing of the fame of Alasmaee, invited him to his court
and chose him as his own instructor. He died at Bag
dad about 821. The famous romance of Antar has been
ascribed to him.

Abd-el-Malek or Abd-ul-Malik* abd ool-ma hk,
a suitan of Western Africa, was born at Fez about 1500.
When his dominions were invaded by Sebastian, King
of Portugal, he made vigorous preparations for defence,
and, though labouring under severe disease, accompanied
his army," in a litter, to the field of battle, (August, 1578.)
The Moors were victorious, and Sebastian was taken and
put to death ; but Abd-el-Malik died of exhaustion dur
ing the contest, and Mohammed, his nephew, whom he
had dethroned, and at whose instigation the Portuguese
king had begun the war, was drowned in his flight. This
battle has been called "the battle of the three kings."

Abd-el-Malek,* (Ibn-Merwan mer wSn ,) the
fifth caliph of the house of Omeyyah, ascended the throne
in 685. He distinguished himself as a warrior while
quelling several formidable rebellions in his dominions ;
he was brave, just, and strict in the observance of all the
duties of his religion, and was moreover a patron of learn
ing and the useful arts. Died in 705, aged sixty years.

See WEIL, " Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. ix.

Abd-el-Melek. See ABD-EL-MALEK.

Abd-el-Moomen, (-Moumen or-Mumen,) abd el-
moo men, written also Abdul-Mumen, the second
prince or sultan of the line of Almohades, in Africa, was
born in the province of Tlemsen, about noo. On the
death of Al-Mahdee, (Al-Mahdi,) founder of the new
dynasty, he managed to get himself elected successor to
the throne, in 1130. His reign was constantly occupied
with wars, in which he was for the most part eminently
successful. Having subdued all his enemies in Western
Africa, he was preparing to cross into Spain, that he
might put a stop to the victorious career of Alphonso
VIII., when he was attacked by the disease of which he
died, in 1163. He assumed the title of caliph, which his
successors retained.

See ABD-EL-MOUMEN, in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."

Abd-el-Moottalib, (or -Muttalib,) abd el-moot -
ta-lib,t written also Abd-el-Mottalib and Abdol-
Motalleb, a rich citizen of Mecca, born in 497 A.D., was
the son of Hashem and grandfather of the prophet Mo
hammed. He is said to have dug at Mecca, in obedience
to a command given him in a vision, the famous well
of Zemzem, which was destined to supply pilgrims with
water through all succeeding ages. Died in 579-

See ABD-EL-MOTTALIB, in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
SPRENGER, " Life of Mohammad."

Abdel-Mumen. See ABD-EL-MOOMEN.

Abd-el-Wahab,abd el-wa-iiab^rAbdul-Wahab,
ab dool-wa-htb , the founder of the sect of the Wahab-
ites, (Wahabees or Wahabys,) was born in the Arabian
province of Nejd in 1691. He did not, as has been as
serted, promulgate the doctrine? of a new religion. He
saw, as he believed, that the primitive Mohammedan
faith had become totally corrupted, and his efforts were
directed towards introducing a thorough reformation.
He acknowledged the Koran and the traditionary law,
the " Soonnah," (or " Sunnah,") to be the foundation of
religion ; but the opinions even of the greatest com
mentators were not, he maintained, to be received im
plicitly. He complained that many of the Mohammedan
professors bestowed upon the prophet and the saints
honours which were equivalent to adoration. He held
and proclaimed that before God all men were equal, and

* See note on last column of preceding page.

t There is some discrepancy in regard to the accentuation of this
name : some writers give Abd-el-Mutalib, (or -Motallib ;) but the best
authorities make the penultima short. H AMMER-PURGSTALL (Litera-
turgeschichte der Araber, vol. i. p. 384) spells it A bdol-Moththalib,
(i.e. -Moththalib, for he uniformly places an accent on the long sylla
bles :) it should also be observed that he employs th (in German) for
t hard. POCOCK, in his Latin version of Abulpharagius, writes the
name with //, Abdol-Motallab or -Motalleb ; but in the Arabic text
the penultima is short. (See " Historia Dynastiarum," Oxford, 1663.)

that it was a sin to pray to departed saints or to honour
their relics more than those of ordinary persons. The
Wahabites, wherever they had the power to do so, de
stroyed the domes and ornamental tombs : even the
cupola over the birthplace of Mohammed, at Mecca,
and his tomb at Medina, were demolished. Abd-el-Wa-
hab died in 1787.

See BURCKHARDT, "Materials for a History of the Wahabys,"
London, 1830; "Voyages d AH-Bey," Paris, 1814; NIEBUHR,
" Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien," etc.

Abd-er-Rahman, abd eR-RaH man,* (or Abd-ur-
Rahman, ab dooR-RaH man,) I., written also Abdar-
rahmaii, (the "servant of the Merciful," that is, of God,)
the founder of the Omeyyah dynasty of sultans in Spain,
in opposition to the caliphs of the new line, (the Abbas-
sides.) He wrested Moslem Spain from the govern
ment of the caliph in 756, and died in 788 A.D.

See AL-MAKKARI, "History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
Spain."

Abd-er-Rahman II., the fourth sultan of Cordova of
the Omeyyah dynasty, ascended the throne in 822 A.D.
He was an able warrior, was eminent for his modera
tion, justice, and humanity, and was a distinguished
patron of learning. Died in 852 A.D.

Abd-er-Rahman III., surnamedAN-NASiR-LiDEEN-
ILLAH or -LiofNiLLAH, an-na sir-le-dee nil lah, (i.e. "the
defender of the religion of God,") the eighth sultan and
first caliph of Cordova, began to reign in 912, and by
his talents and energy raised the Mohammedan empire
in Spain to the highest pinnacle of glory. He was dis
tinguished both as a warrior and as a patron of learning
and the arts. One of his palaces near Cordova was
decorated with unequalled magnificence ; the audience-
room, in particular, was adorned with golden images of
the most exquisite workmanship, and the roof was cov
ered with pure gold. After a reign of nearly fifty years,
An-Nasir died in 961, at the age of 73. An-Nasir-Li-
deen-Illah was also the name of one of the caliphs of
the Abbasside dynasty, as well as of several other Mo
hammedan princes.

See AL-MAKKARI, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
Spain," translated into English by GAYANGOS, London, 1840-43;
CONDE, " Histoire de la Domination des Arabes;" CASIRI, " Bibli-
otheca Arabico-Hispana."

Abd-er-Rahman, Sultan or Emperor of Morocco,
born in 1778, succeeded his uncle Muley Soliman in
1823. He became the ally of Abd-el-Kader in the war
against the French, who defeated his army at Isly in
1844.

Abd-er-Rahman-Alghafekee, (or -Alghafeki,)
al-ca fe-kee , a Moslem governor of Spain, invaded Gaul
at the head of eighty thousand men, and, having ravaged
Aquitaine, encountered the French army under Charles
Martel near Tours, in October, 732 A.D. After a se
vere and prolonged contest, the Christians gained a
complete victory, which saved Europe from the Moham
medan yoke and put an effectual check to the conquests
of the Saracens of Spain. Abd-er-Rahman himself was
left dead on the field of battle.

See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."

Abd-er-Rahman, (Ibn-Khaldooii or -Khaldun.)

See IBN-KHALDOON.

Abd-er-Razzak, abd eR-Raz-zaV, or Abdurrazzak,
ab dooR-Raz-zSk , the founder of a small empire in East
ern Persia, about 1336, which lasted only till the con
quest of Tamerlane in 1381.

Abd-er-Razzak, or Abd-er-Rezzak, (Kamal-ed-
Deen or Kemal-ed-Din, ka-mSl ed-deen ,) a Persian
traveller and historian, born at Herat in 1413 ; died
about 1475. He wrote an interesting history of the de
scendants of Tamerlane.

Abdias, ab-dee as, (Ben-Shalom sha lom,) a Jew
ish rabbi of the seventh century, went to Arabia to dis
pute with Mohammed, who is said to have converted him.

* Most European writers accentuate this name on the last syllable,
ABD-ER-RAHMAN ; but we have preferred to follow Hammer- Purgstall,
who invariably gives it with the ultima short ABDERRAHMAN, (ab-
der-rah m.^n.) So far as we have had an opportunity of consulting
tile Arabic texts of the Mohammedan writers, they have nearly
always confirmed the practice of that eminent Orientalist. Both
forms are undoubtedly correct ; but that given above is sanctioned
by the best Arabic usage.

a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;

ABDOL-MALIK

3 1

ABEL A

Abdol-Malik. See ABD-EL-MALEK.

Abdol-Moththalib. See AHD-EL-MOOTTALIB.

Abdoloiiimus. See AHDALONYMUS.

Abd-ool- (Abdul- or Abdoul-) Hamid, (or -Ha-
met,) ab dool- ha micl,(or ha met,) Sultan ot Turkev, born
in 1725, was a son of Ahmed III. He succeeded his
brother Mustapha III. in 1774. Having been defeated
by the Russians, he obtained a short peace by the treaty
of Kootchook-Kainarji in July, 1774. He was again
involved in war against Russia, and lost a battle at Oc-
zakow, in 1788. Died in 1789.

See VON HAMMER, " Histoire de 1 Empire Ottoman."

Abd-ool-Mejeed, Abdoul-Medjid, or Abdul-
Mejid, ab dool-me-jeed , an eminent Mohammedan
poet, vizier to Aboo-Mohammed, the last king ot Bada-
jo/. He died about 1125.

Abd-ool-Mejeed, Abdul-Mejid, or Abdoul-
Medjid, al/ddbl-me-jeed , [Ger. spelling, ABDUL MED-
sciiii),] Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823, was the eldest
son of Mahmood II., whom he succeeded July i, 1839.
He found Turkey at war against Mehemet AH of Egypt,
whose victorious army was marching towards his capital.
From this danger he was saved by the intervention of
the great European powers in 1840. He pursued the
course of reform commenced by his father, which was
resisted by a fanatical party among his subjects, and ex
hibited a spirit of tolerance towards Christians. About
the end of 1853 he was involved in a war with Russia,
in which France and England were the allies of Abd-ool-
Mcjeed. (See NICHOLAS I.) He died in June, 1861, and
was succeeded by his brother Abd-ool-Azeez, (Abdul-
Aziz.)

See ABDOUL MEDJID, in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."

Abdor-Rahmaii. See ABD-ER-RAHMAN.

Abdoul-Melek. See ABD-EL-MALEK.

Abdulaziz. See ABDELA/JZ.

Abdul-Kadir. See ABD-EL-KADER.

Abdul-Malik. See ABD-EL-MALKK.

Abdul-Mumeii. See ABD-EL-MOOMEN.

Abdurrahman. See ABD-ER-RAHMAN.

Ab dy, (Mi RA SMITH,) an English authoress, born in
London about 1818, was a niece of Horace and James
Smith. She married a Rev. Mr. Abdy, of London.
She has written agreeable verses and tales, some of
which appeared in various annuals. Perhaps her most
important work is her "Appeal on Behalf of Govern
esses." Died in July, 1867.

A Bec ket, (GILBERT ABBOT,) a witty and humorous
English writer, born in London in 1810 or 1811. He
was admitted to the bar in 1841. He contributed to
the London "Times" and " Punch." Among his works
are "The Comic Blackstone," (1844-46,) and "The
Comic History of England," (1848.) Died in 1856.

A Becket, (THOMAS.) See BECKET.

A-bed ne-go , called also Az-a-ri ah, one of the
three Hebrew captives whom Nebuchadnezzar, King of
Babylon, ordered to be thrown into his fiery furnace.
(See Daniel i. 7 ; ii. 49 ; iii. 10, etc.)

A-beel , (DAVID,) an American missionary, born at
New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1804. He published
"A Journal of a Residence in China, 1829-33." Died
in 1846.

Abegg, a bek, (BRUNO Erhard CR haRt,) a Ger
man lawyer, born at Elbing in 1803. Died in Berlin in
1848.

Abegg, QULIUS FRIEDRICH HEINRICH,) a German
jurist, born at Erlangen in 1796. He became professor
of law at Breslau in 1826, and published many legal
works.

Abeille, .VMl , [Fr. pron. i MI or f b.Vye,] (GAS-
i-ARi),) a mediocre French lyric and tragic poet, born in
Provence in 1648. He was educated for the church, and
received the title of "Abbe." In 1704 he was elected
a member of the French Academy. Died in 1718.

Abeille, a bM , (Louis,) a German pianist and com
poser, born at Baireuth about 1765. He produced
several successful operas, etc. Died in 1832.

See F^TIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musicians."

Abeille, (Louis PAUL,) a French writer and agricul
turist, born at Toulon in 1719. He was for several

years inspector-general of the manufactures of France.
Died in 1807.

Abeille, (SciPiON,) a French surgeon and poet, was
a brother of Gaspard, noticed above. He wrote in verse
a " Description of the Bones," (" Histoire des Os," 1685.)
Died in 1697.

Abekeii, ab eh-ken, (BERNHARD RUDOLPH,) a Ger
man writer, born at Osnabriick in 1780. He was em
ployed by Schiller as tutor to his children, and was after
wards professor in the College of Osnabriick. Among
his works are " Studies on the Divina Commedia of
Dante," (1826,) and a valuable contribution to the biogra
phy of Cicero, "Cicero in seinen Briefen," (1835,) f
which an English version was published in 1854.

A bel, [in Hebrew ^HI] the second son of Adam and
Eve. He is regarded as the first martyr, and the first
of mankind who suffered physical death, having been
murdered by Cain, his brother. (See Genesis iv., and
Hebrews xi. 4; also Matthew xxiii. 35.)

Abel, [Dan. pron. a bSl,] a king of Denmark, second
son of \Valdemar II. He secretly instigated the mur
der of his brother, Erik VI., and was elected king in
his stead in 1250. He was killed, while endeavouring to
suppress a rebellion of the Frisians, in 1252.

Abel, a bel, (CASPAR,) a German writer and anti
quary, born in 1676; died 1763.

Abel, a bel, (CLARKE,) an English surgeon and natu
ralist, born about 1780. He accompanied Lord Am-
herst to China in 1816 as naturalist of the expedition,
and published a " Narrative of a Journey in the Interior
of China," (1818,) which has been highly commended.
He was afterwards surgeon-in-chief to the governor-
general of India, and died in 1826.

See "Gentleman s Magazine," Dec. 1827.

Abel, (FRIEDRICH GOTTFRIED,) a German physician,
born in 1714, was a son of Caspar, noticed above. Died
in 1794.

Abel, (JOSEPH,) a distinguished historical painter,
born near Linz, on the Danube, in 1768. He passed
six years, 1802-8, in Rome, where he painted "Pro
metheus Bound" and designs from the Iliad. He after
wards worked in Vienna, and produced, besides many
portraits, some historical pictures, among which is a
" Flight into Egypt." Died in Vienna in 1818.

Abel, (KARL FRIEDRICH,) a German musician, born
at Kb then in 1725. In 1763 he removed to London,
where for many years he enjoyed the highest popularity ;
but, owing to the fickleness of the public taste, his con
certs ceased at last to attract any attention. He died in
1787. He is noted as having been the teacher of Cra
mer.

Abel, a bel, (NiEi.s HENRIK,) a distinguished mathe
matician, born at Findo, in Norway, in 1802. He
studied at the University of Christiania ; and afterwards,
by the aid of a pension from the government, travelled
through Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and France. He
returned to his native country in 1827, and died in 1829.
The special object of Abel s scientific labours was the
theory of elliptic functions. The celebrated Legendre
spoke with astonishment of his discoveries, and evidently
regarded his mathematical talents as of the most orig
inal and highest order.

See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Bicgra-
phie Ge ne rale."

Abel, von, fon a bel, QAKOH FRIEDRICH,) a German
philosopher, born in \Viirtcmberg in 1751, was professor
of philosophy at Tiibingen. He wrote, besides other
works, "Collection and Explanation of the Remarkable
Phenomena of Human Life," (" Sammlung und Ei -
klarung merkwiirdiger Erscheinungen aus clem mensch-
lichen Leben," 3 vols., 1790.) Died in 1829.

Abel, von, (KARL,) a Bavarian statesman, born at
Wetzlar in 1788. He became minister of the interior in
1838, and the chief of the absolutist or ultramontane
party. By the influence of Lola Monies he was driven
from power in February, 1847.

Abel-De-Pujol. See PUJOL.

Abel Remusat. See REMUSAT.

Abela, a-ba la, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) a Maltese, of
noble family, who in the early part of the seventeenth

as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

ABELARD

ABERCROMBT

century wrote a valuable work entitled " Malta Illus
trated, with its Antiquities, and other Information,"
(" Malta illustrata con le sue Antichita ed altre Notizie.")
Born in 1582 ; died in 1655.

Ab e-lard (PIERRE) or Abailard, [Fr. pron. a b\ -
IfR ; in Latin, PE TRUS AB^ELAR DUS,] a celebrated
French philosopher and logician, was born near Nantes
in 1079. After having studied Latin, Greek, and He
brew, he visited Paris, where he became the pupil of
William de Champeaux, the most skilful dialectician of
the age. But the pupil soon surpassed his master, and
often challenged him to public disputations, so com
mon in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. He is said
to have been so elated by his frequent triumphs that not
only his master but his fellow-students were disgusted
with his vanity. About 1 101 he retired from Paris and set
up a school at Melun, whither crowds of pupils repaired
to hear his instructions. Not long after, he returned to
Paris, where, both as teacher and disputant, he was soon
without a rival. When he was about thirty-four years
old, Abelard turned his attention to divinity, and went
to Laon to study under Anselme. His brilliant repu
tation, joined to his vanity and arrogance, raised up
against him bitter enemies, whose persecution compelled
him to leave the town. He then reopened a school in
Paris, and his fame became greater than ever before.
His well-known and unfortunate amour with his pupil
Heloise need not be related here. Suffice it to say that
it left him defenceless against the malice of those ene
mies whom his former triumphs and arrogance had pro
voked. The remainder of his life was little else than a
succession of persecutions. His errors and his afflic
tions appear to have at last taught him simplicity and
humility. He died in 1142, at the priory of St. Marcel,
near Chalons, whither he had gone for his health. His
remains were, at her request, given up to Heloise, and
buried at the oratory of the Paraclete, which he had
founded, and where she was then prioress. Twenty
years afterwards, she was interred in the same tomb.

Abelard left many writings, nearly all dialectical or
theological, except his "Letters to Heloise," ("Epistolce
Petri Abaslardi et Heloisae,") and the " History of [his]
Misfortunes," (" Historia Calamitatum.")

"Abelard s reputation," says the " Foreign Quarterly
Review" for January, 1846, " was higher than that of any
living man. ... It is from his connection with Heloise
that Abelard has descended to posterity ; his own claims
are slight, and have been greatly overrated. . . . He
discovers nothing ; he improves nothing. He can only
dazzle and confuse."

"Abelard," observes Hallam, " was almost the first who
awakened mankind, in the age of darkness, to a sympa
thy with intellectual excellence. His bold theories, not
the less attractive, perhaps, for treading upon the bounds
of heresy, his imprudent vanity that scorned the regu
larly acquired reputation of older men, allured a multi
tude of disciples who would never have listened to an
ordinary teacher. . . . But the whole of Abelard s
life was the shipwreck of genius ; and of genius both
the source of his own calamities and unserviceable to
posterity." ("Middle Ages." vol. iv. p. 377.)

See COUSIN S " Introduction to the Works of Abelard," 1836; BER-
INGTON, " History of Abelard and Heloise," 1787 ; J. HUGHES, " Life
of Abelard," 1751 ; BERINGTON, " History of the Middle Ages," 1814;
BRUCKER, "History of Philosophy," 1766; DOM GERVAISE, "Vie
d Abelard," 1720; FESSLER, "Abalard und Heloise," 2 vols., 1806;
SCHLOSSER, "Abalard und Dulcin," 1807; FEUERDACH, "Abalard
und Heloise," 1834 ; O. GUIZOT, " Essai sur la Vie et les E~crits
d Abailard et de Heloise," 1839 ; CH. DE REMUSAT, "Abelard," 2
vols., 1845; FLEURV, " Histoire de 1 figlise," 1751; BERNARDUS,
(Saint,)" EpistoL-e ;" also articles in the "Westminster Review," vol.
xxxii., and the " Forei.m Quarterly," vol. xxxvi.

Abelin, t beh lax , or Abeling, a beh-ling, (JOHANN
PHILIPP,) a German historian, born at Strasburg, as
sumed in some of his works the name of JOHANN LUD-
WIG GOTTFRIED, (GOTHOFREDUS.) He published many
works, among which are the first and second volumes of
the " Theatrum Europium," a valuable record of con
temporary history, which was continued to the twenty-
first volume, and a description of the West Indies, (" His
toria Antipodum," 1655.) Died about 1646.

See JOCHER, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon."

Abell, a bel or i-beT, (JOHN,) an English singer and

performer on the lute, was attached to the chapel of
Charles II. He was banished as a papist in 1688.
Died after 1700.

Abelli or Abelly, t b.Yle , (ANTOINE,) an eminent
French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1527. He was con
fessor to Catherine de Medicis. He is supposed to have
died about 1600.

Abelli or Abelly, (Louis,) a French ecclesiastic,
born in Paris in 1603. He was made Bishop of Rodez
in 1664, and died in 1691. He wrote numerous theo
logical works.

Aben- (or Ebii-) Beitar, a bc n-bi-e-taR or -bl-taR ,
(Abdal lah-Ibn- (Tb n) Ah med,) an Arabian botan
ist, born near Malaga; died in 1248.

Abencerage, a-beVse-raj , [Sp. pron. a-Bgn-tha-ra -
na,] plural, Abencerages or Abencerrages, (a Span
ish corruption of the Arabic BEN! SERRAJ, i.e. the "Sons
of Serraj,") the name of a noble Moorish family in the
kingdom of Granada, originally from Cordova. Several
members of this family acted prominent parts in the pe
riod which preceded the conquest of Granada by the
Spaniards. There was a deadly feud between the Aben
cerages and the Zegris.

Abendaiia, a-ben-da na, (JACOB,) a Spanish Jew,
who lived in London, and wrote commentaries on the
Scriptures. Died in 1685.

Abendroth, a bent-rSt , (AMADEUS AUGUST,) a Ger
man lawyer, born at Hamburg in 1767. He became
mayor of that city in 1810, and burgomaster in 1831.
Died in 1842.

Aben- (a bSn) Ez ra, a Spanish Jew, born at Toledo
in 1 1 19. As a commentator on the Scriptures he stands
in the foremost rank. He excelled in almost every
branch of science ; he was an eminent astronomer, math
ematician, physician, linguist, and poet. He is supposed
to have died in 1194.

Aben-Humeya, a be n-hoo-ma ya, the last king of
Granada, born about 1520. He was of Spanish origin,
and was chosen king by the Moors who had revolted
against Philip II. He was captured and strangled in 1568.

Abenpace. See AVENPACE.

Abercrombie, ab er-krum-be, (JAMES,) D.D., an elo
quent and learned clergyman of the Episcopal Church
in Philadelphia, born in 1758; died in 1841.

Abercrombie, (JAMES,) a major-general in the Brit
ish army in America, where he arrived and took com
mand of the troops at Albany in 1756. The French
having obtained possession of the lakes, Abercrombie in
1758 was intrusted by Pitt with a force of 50,000 men to
recover the places which had been lost. On the 8th ot
July he attacked Ticoncleroga at the head of 15,000
troops, but was repulsed by Montcalm with great loss.
He was shortly after superseded by Lord Amherst.

Abercrombie, (JOHN,) an eminent Scottish physician,
born at Aberdeen in 1781. Having graduated as an
M.D. in 1803, he settled in Edinburgh, and rose to the
highest rank in his profession. His reputation was
widely extended by his writings, among which are
"Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases of
the Brain and Spinal Cord," (1828,) "Inquiries concern
ing the Intellectual Powers of Man, and the Investiga
tion of Truth," (1830,) and "The Philosophy of the Moral
Feelings," (1833.) Referring to his work on the intellect
ual powers, the "Quarterly Review" observes, " His de
scriptions of the mental phenomena are clear and pre
cise, and his reasonings perspicuous and sound. . .* .
The style of the work merits equal praise. It is sim
ple and unambitious, without being devoid of ornament
or power." ( " London Quarterly" for July, 1831.) He
was chosen lord rector of Marischal College, Aber
deen, in 1835. Died in November, 1844.

See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
vol. v.

Abercromby, ab er-krum-be, (ALEXANDER,) a Scot
tish judge, the youngest brother of Sir Ralph Abercromby,
was born in 1745. In 1792 (on the death of Lord Hailes)
he became a judge in the court of justiciary. Died in
1795. He wrote several interesting papers for "The
Mirror" and "The Lounger," two literary periodicals
edited by Mackenzie.

See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; far, fall, fat; me t; n6t; good; moon;

ABERCROMBT

ABGAR US

Abercromby, (DAVID,) a Scottish physician, who
nourished in the latter half of the seventeenth century.
Besides four short treatises on medicine, he wrote several
works on other subjects. His " Fur Academicus" ("Aca
demical Thief") shows him to have been a man of wit
and learning. The time of his birth and that of his
death are unknown.

Abercromby, (JAMES,) BARON DUNFERMLINE, a
British peer, a son of Sir Ralph, noticed below, was
born in 1776. He entered Parliament about 1812, voted
with the Whigs, and acquired distinction as a debater.
He was speaker of the House of Commons from 1835
to 1839, in which year he resigned and passed into the
House of Lords as Baron Dunfermline. Died in 1858.

Abercromby, (JOHN,) a horticultural writer, born
near Edinburgh in 1726. His first work, entitled "Every
Man his own Gardener," had a great sale ; and he after
wards published a number of others, among which may
be mentioned "The British Fruit Gardener" and "The
Gardener s Daily Assistant." Died in 1806.

Abercromby, (Sir JOHN,) the second son of Sir
Ralph, served under him in Egypt, and obtained the
rank of general. Having been appointed governor of
Madras, he took Mauritius from the French in 1810.
He died, it is supposed, in 1817.

Abercromby, (PATRICK,) M.D., the author of a work
entitled " Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation,"
(2 vols., 1711-15,) was born at Forfar in 1656, and is
supposed to have died about the year 1720. Although
his work has enjoyed a considerable reputation, it pos
sesses little merit.

Abercromby, (Sir RALPH,) a distinguished military
commander, was born in Clackmannanshire, Scotland,
in 1734. lie entered the University of Edinburgh in
1752, and in 1754 was sent by his father to Leipsic
to study civil law. But, as he manifested a decided pref
erence for the military profession, his father yielded to
his wishes and permitted him to join the army. In
1773 he was elected member of Parliament. He does
not, however, appear to have particularly distinguished
himself in any way till the breaking out of the war with
France in 1793. In 1795 he was created Knight of the
Bath. In the unfortunate campaigns in Holland under
the Duke of York in 1793-5, and especially in that of
1799, he did everything that a subordinate officer could
do. The bravery and military skill which he evinced
won for him universal respect, and every one was satis
fied that had he commanded in chief the results would
have been very different. Abercromby was appointed
commander-in-chief of the expedition against Egypt,
which set out in 1800 and reached its destination in
1801. A few days after the landing of the troops near
Alexandria, the British camp was suddenly attacked by
all the French troops in that country. The assailants
were bravely repulsed, but during the action the British
commander received a wound in the thigh, of which he
died a few days after. As an officer, Sir Ralph Aber
cromby was distinguished by talents of a high order,
and still more by a humane and generous regard for
the welfare of his soldiers. Though perfectly reckless
in exposing himself, he was extremely careful never to
expose those under his command to any unnecessary
danger. As a man, he was distinguished for benevolence,
superiority to prejudice, and a high sense of honour. Sir
Ralph Abercromby had four sons : the first Lord Aber
cromby ; Sir John Abercromby, who served with credit
under his father in Egypt, and afterwards rose to the
rank of a general ; Lord Dunfermline; and Alexander, a
lieutenant-colonel in the army.

See "Memoir of Sir Ralph Abercromby," by LORD DUNFERM-
I.INK ; CIIAMHF.RS, " Biographical Dictionary of Kminent Scotsmen ;"
WILSON, " History of the British Expedition to Egypt."

Abercromby, (Sir ROHF.RT,) a British general, was
a younger brother of Sir Ralph. He became governor
of Bombay in 1789, and commander-in-chief in India in
1792. After a successful campaign against the Rohillas,
he returned to England in 1797, and was elected to Par
liament. Died about 1827.

Ab-er-deen , (GEORGE HAM ILTON GOR PON.) EARL
OF, a British statesman, born in 1784, inherited the earl
dom (in the Scottish peerage) from his grandfather, who

died in 1802. He was elected one of the Scottish repre
sentative peers about 1807, identified himself with the
Tory party, and was sent on a. diplomatic mission to Vi
enna in 1813. In 1814 he became Viscount Gordon in
the peerage of the United Kingdom. He was secretary
of state for foreign affairs, in the cabinet of Wellington,
from 1828 until November, 1830, when his party went
out of power. In September, 1841, Sir Robert Peel
appointed him to the same office, which he retained
until the triumph of the Whig party, in July, 1846. His
foreign policy was pacific.

After the death of Peel, (1850,) the Earl of Aberdeen
was regarded as the head of the Peelite party. On the
defeat of Lord Derby, in December, 1852, he became
prime minister, and formed his cabinet by a coalition of
Conservatives and Whigs or Liberals. In spite of his ef
forts to maintain peace, Great Britain "drifted into war"
against Russia, in 1854. He lost popularity by his mod
eration towards Russia, and was censured for remissness
in the prosecution of the war. Having been defeated
in the House of Commons about February i, 1855, he re
signed his office, and was succeeded by Lord Palmerston.
Died in December, 1860. He had been twice married,
and left a son, who was styled Lord Haddo.

See " Gentleman s Magazine" for February, 1861.

Aberli, a beR-lee, QOHANN LUDWIG,) a Swiss land
scape-painter and engraver, born at Winterthur in 1723.
His landscapes of Swiss scenery, engraved and coloured,
were much admired, and found many imitators. Died at
Berne in 1786.

Abernethy, al/er-ne-///e, (JOHN,) an eminent dis
senting divine, born at Coleraine, in Ireland, in 1680.
He took the degree of M.A. at the College of Glasgow,
and afterwards studied divinity in Edinburgh. Upon
finishing his course he returned to Ireland, and at length
became the pastor of a Presbyterian congregation at
Antrim. Some new views which he subsequently
adopted, on the right of private judgment in matters of
faith, together with the spirit of independence which he
manifested with respect to the authority of the synod,
caused at last a schism in the church. In 1730 he be
came the pastor of an independent congregation, in ad
dressing whom he carefully avoided all appeals to the
affections, maintaining that nothing else was requisite
than merely to convince the reason. Hence his follow
ers were termed Rational Dissenters. Abernethy died
in 1740.

See DUCHAL, "Life of Abernethy," prefixed to his Sermons;
"Biographia Britannica."

Abernethy, (JOHN,) a celebrated English surgeon
and physiologist, born in London in 1764, was a pupil
of John Hunter. He was a grandson of John Aber
nethy, noticed above. In 1 786 he became assistant-sur
geon of St. Bartholomew s Hospital, London, and on
the death of Sir C. Blick he succeeded him as chief sur
geon in that institution. He lectured on anatoniy and
surgery, and acquired immense popularity as a teacher.
He published, in 1809, an able work "On the Consti
tutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases," in
which he propounded doctrines which have made a
great change in the science of surgery. He is said to
have been the first surgeon who performed the ligature
of the carotid artery and the external iliac artery.
Many amusing anecdotes are related of him, exhibiting
that singular mixture of shrewd sense, wit, and eccen
tricity for which he was so remarkable. A gouty rich
man having consulted him received for answer, Live
on sixpence a day, and earn it." In domestic relations
he is said to have been amiable. He married Ann
Threlfall in 1800. Died at Enfield in April, 1831.

See GF.ORGE MACIIAVAIN. "Memoirs of J. Abernethy," 1^53
CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Abert, a bert, (JOHN J.,) an American engineer, born
in Maryland in 1790. He was appointed major of topo
graphical engineers in 1814, and colonel of the same in
1838. He was at the head of the corps of topographical
engineers for about thirty years. Died in January, 1863.

Abesch, a besh, (ANNA BARISARA,) a "famous Swiss
painter on glass. Died about 1750.

Ab gar-us, [Gr. "A/fyapoc,] written also Abagarus,

k. c as s; g hard: g as /; &lt;;, H, K, guttural; X, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

xplanations, p. 23.!

AB1ATHAR

ABOO-BEKR

Agbarus, and Augarus, a name common to several
kings of Edessa in Mesopotamia.

Ab-I a-thar, [in Hebrew, "IJVJJX,] a high-priest of the
Jews, and one of the chief counsellors of King David.
(See I. Samuel xxii., xxiii., and xxx. ; II. Samuel viii.
and xx.; I. Kings ii. and iv.)

Abicht, a biKt, QOHANN GEORG,) a German author
ancl divine, born in Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt in 1672.
He wrote several works on the Hebrew language and
antiquities, and also on theology. Died in 1740.

Abicot. See HABICOT.

Abidenus. See AHYDENUS.

Ab i-gail, [Heb. Vr2X.] a Hebrew matron, who was
married first to Nabal, and secondly to King David.
(See I. Samuel xxv.)

A-bi jah or A-bi a, [in Hebrew, iT3tf,] a name com
mon to several Israelites, among whom may be named
a son of Jeroboam and a son of the prophet Samuel.

Ab-i jamflieb. D JX] or Abijah, King of Judah, was
a son of Rehoboam, whom he succeeded on the throne.
After a reign of three years, he died about 955 B.C. (I.
Kings xv. 1-8; II. Chronicles xiii.)

Abildgaard, a blld-goRd ^ NICHOLAS,) a distinguished
Danish historical painter, born in Copenhagen in 1744.
In 1772 he visited Italy, where he spent five years. He
was afterwards appointed professor of painting in the
Academy of Copenhagen. Died about 1806. He is
considered by many as the best painter that Denmark has
produced. Among his works are a " Socrates," and the
"Creation of the World, after Orpheus."

See ERSCH und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" NAGLER,
" Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon. "

Abildgaard, (PETER CHRISTIAN,) an able Danish
physician and naturalist, born at Copenhagen about 1740,
was, according to Malte-Brun, a brother of the preced
ing. He wrote many treatises on medicine, zoology,
etc., and gave a description of the Megatherium at the
same time as Cuvier, (1796.) He was secretary of the
Academy of Sciences, and founder of the Veterinary
School of Copenhagen. Died about 1808.

See " Biographic Universelle;" " Historia brevis Regii Instituti
Veterinarii," etc., Copenhagen, 1788; CUVIER, " Sur les Ossements
Fossiles."

Abildgaard, (So REN,) a Danish naturalist, born be
tween 1720 and 1730. He wrote two works on topo
graphical mineralogy, one of which is entitled " Physico-
Mineralogical Description of the Promontory of Moen,"
(" Physik-mineralogisk Beskrivelse over Moens Klint,"
1781.) Died in 1791.

See ERSCH, "Handbuch dsr D^utscheti Literatur."

Abilfedae. See AKOOLFEDA.

A-bim e-leeh, [Heb. -t^rDX,] an illegitimate son
of Gideon, chosen king by the men of Shechem after
he had slain all his brothers except Jothain. Afterwards,
while attempting to take Thebez, he was mortally wound
ed with a stone thrown from the top of ^he citadel by a
woman ; upon which his armour-bearer, at his request,
ran him through the body with a sword, lest it should
be said that he had been slain by a woman. (See Judges
ix.) Two kings of Gerar, named Abimelech, are men
tioned in the book of Genesis, (chaps, xx. and xxvi.)

Ab in-ger, (Lord,) an English lawyer, whose proper
name was JAMES SCARLETS, was born in Jamaica about
i 769. Having been educated in England, he was called to
the bar in 1791, and obtained great success as a pleader.
He was appointed attorney-general in 1827, and became
an adherent of the Tory party. In 1 834 he was appointed
chief baron of the exchequer, and raised to the peerage
as Baron Abinger. He is said to have been almost unri
valled in the tact and address with which he operated on
the minds of juries. Died in 1844, leaving several sons.

c ?- ae , G f !1 1 eman s Magazine" for June, 1844 ; Foss, " The Judges
of England," vol. ix.

Ab ing-ton, (FRANCES,) a celebrated English actress,
born about the year 1731. She excelled in every de
partment of comedy, and was for a long time without a
rival. Her taste in dress was greatly admired. Her
talents and elegant manners procured her admittance
into society of the highest rank ; but, as a woman, her
character was marred with those moral blemishes so
common in persons of her profession. She died in 1815.

Abington, (THOMAS and WILLIAM.) See HABING-

TON.

Abisbal, a-Bes-bal , (HENRY O DONNELL,) COUNT,
a Spanish general of Irish descent, who greatly dis
tinguished himself in resisting the French invasion in
1809-10. He afterwards acted a conspicuous part in
the political as well as military affairs of Spain until his
death, in 1834.

A-bish a-i, [Heb. t^JX,] one of the three sons of
Zeruiah, sister of King David, in whose army he was a
leader. See II. Samuel xxiii. 18; also I. Samuel xxvi.
6-9.

Ablancourt, d , dt blS.x kooR , (NICOLAS Perrot
pi ro ,) an eminent French translator, born at Chalons-
sur-Marne in 1606. He produced translations of Taci
tus, Thucydides, Caesar, and Lucian, which were received
with favour ; but they are not faithful, and are now neg
lected. He was admitted into the French Academy
in 1637. Colbert proposed him as historiographer in
1662, but Louis XIV. rejected him because he was a
Protestant. Died in 1664.

Ab-la/vi-us, a Roman historian, cited by Jornandes in
his History of the Goths. The age in which he lived is
unknown.

Ableitner, ab lTt-ner, QOIIANN,) a Bavarian sculptor,
who nourished in the early part of the seventeenth cen
tury.

Ablesimof or Ablecirnof, a-bles e-mof , (ALEXAN
DER,) an officer in the Russian army, who became dis
tinguished as a dramatist. Among his works is a suc
cessful national comic opera entitled "The Miller,"
(1779,) which is considered a faithful picture of Russian
manners. Died at Moscow in 1784.

Ab ner or Abiiier, [Heb. iJHX or T3X,] the son of
Ner, was captain of the host of Saul, King of Israel.
After the death of Saul, in consequence of an affront
offered him by Ishbosheth, Abner sought to transfer the
whole kingdom to David. But Joab, exasperated be
cause Abner had killed his brother Asahel in battle,
and perhaps jealous of the influence which he might ac
quire with David, called him aside under pretence of
speaking with him privately, and treacherously slew
him.

Ab ney, (Sir THOMAS,) M.P., Lord Mayor of Lon
don, born in 1639. He rendered important services to
William III. Died in 17.22.

Abondio, a-bon de-o, (ALESSANDRO,) a Florentine
painter, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. He worked in
Germany, and died at Prague. He had a son of the
same name, who lived at Munich and was no less dis
tinguished as a painter than his father.

AB OO, ABOU, or ABU, an Arabic word signifying
"father," forming a prefix to many Oriental names, as
Auoo-BEKR, (which see,) the "father of the virgin."

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Abdillah, a btTo ab-diK-
lah, the Sheeite, the chief actor in the revolution which
established the dynasty of the Fatimites on the throne
of Egypt. He was born at Sanaa about 865. By his
preaching and by his arms he induced a great part of
the Mohammedans in Africa to join the new sect and to
recognize the claims of Obeydallah, the first sultan of
the Fatimite line. But having afterwards been detected
in a conspiracy against his sovereign, whom he had
raised to the throne, he was put to death in 911.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Abdillah-Mohammed,
surnamed AL-MAHDEE or AL-MAHDL, (i.e. "director" or
"rider,") founder of the sect and dynasty of the Almo-
hades, (Almowahedun,) was born in the province of Soos,
in Morocco, about the year 1087. Like many other
leaders of Mohammedan sects, he began with preaching
and ended with the sword. He died in 1 130, leaving to
Abd-el-Moomen the prosecution of his plans of reform
and conquest.

Aboo-Amroo-Al-Owzaee, (Abu-Amru-Alau-
zai,) a boo am roo al-ow-za ee, a famous Mohammedan
doctor, who was born at Baalbek about 706 and died
about 774 A.D.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Bahr-Sefwan, a boo -
baH r sef wan , a distinguished Moslem poet and histo-

a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;

ABOO-BEKR

ABOO LF EDA

rian, born at Murcia, in Spain, about the year 1106.
Besides many other valuable works, he wrote a biograph
ical dictionary of eminent contemporary authors, lie
died about 1 182.

Aboo-Bekr, (Abu-Beker, Abu-Bekr, or Abou-
Bekr,) a boo bek er, or a-boo bek-er, written also Abu-
Bakr, Abti-Bacr, and Aboubecre, the first of Mo
hammed s successors, was born in 571 A. I). lie be
longed to the celebrated tribe of Koreish, and was one
of the first and most zealous of the converts to Islam.
His original name was ABU-EL-KAAHA, (abd-el-kS ba ;)
but after the prophet Mohammed had married his virgin
daughter Ayeshah, he was called ABOO-BEKR, the " Fa
ther of the Virgin." He was elected to the throne in
632, and died in 634, after a reign of two years and three
months. Aboo-Bekr is admitted by all to have been a
pious and humble man, and a mild, generous, and excel
lent prince. He was succeeded by Omar.

See GIBBON, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. 1. ; IR
VING. " Mahomet and his Successors ;" WEIL, " Geschichte der Cha-
lifen," vol. i. chap. i. for a notice of the character of Aboo-Bekr, see
SPRENGER S " Life of Mohammad," p. 170 ct scq.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Bekr-al-Mahree, (Al-
mahri,) a bob bek er al-maii ree , the vizier of Almu-
tamed, Sultan of Seville, was born about 1030. He ap
pears to have been an able minister, but, having incurred
the suspicion of his sovereign, he was put to death in
1084. He was regarded as one of the first poets of his age.

Aboo-Bekr (Abu-Beker) -Ibn-Tofail, (Tb n to-
fll ,) an eminent Arabian philosopher, born at Guadix, in
Spain. He wrote a philosophical romance entitled " Hai-
Ibn-Yokdhan," (or " Hayyi-Ibn-Yokttan,") which was
translated into Latin by Pocock and published in 1671,
and into English by Simon Ockley, (London, 1708.)
Died at Morocco in 1186.

See AI.-MAKKAKI, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
Spain," translated by GAYAXGOS, vol. i. pp. 335-6.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Faras, a boo fa-ris , a dis
tinguished Arabian poet, born in 932. He was cousin
to Seyf-ed-Dowlah, (Seyfu-d-daulah,) Sultan of Aleppo,
at whose court he lived. A Mohammedan writer calls
him " the pearl of his time, and the sun of his age, in
learning, talent, generosity, glory, eloquence, horseman
ship, and bravery." He was killed in a skirmish in 968.

Aboo- (or Abou-) Hamid-Alghazaiee, (Abu-Ha-
mid-Al-ghazali or Alghazzali,) i boo ha micl al-Ga-
za lee, a distinguished doctor, born at Toos, (Tus,) in
Khorassan, about 1058. He spent a part of his time in
travelling ; but much the greater portion appears to
have been passed in seclusion and wholly devoted to
philosophy and divinity. He is said to have been a man
of sound judgment and immense learning. From his rare
attainments as a divine, he was called ZEYN-ED-DEEN,
"the ornament of religion." Died at Bagdad in mi.

Aboo-Haneefah. See HANEEFAH.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Hayyan, a boo hl ySn ,
surnamed ATHEER-ED-DEEN, (ATHIR-UD-DIX,) "the
glory of religion," a distinguished Arabian author, born
in the province of Jaen, in Spain, in 1256. When very
young, he visited several towns in Andalusia, where he
supported himself by transcribing books and lecturing on
the Koran. He afterwards went to Egypt, and was ap
pointed a professor and lecturer on the Koran in one of
the colleges of that country. He died in Cairo in 1344.
He was called "the prince of his age in the science of
grammar." Besides numerous other important works,
lie wrote a "History of the Turkish Race," and a volu
minous commentary on the Koran.

Aboo- (Abu- of Abou-) Ishak, (-is-hSk ,) an Ara
bian geographer, who lived about the beginning of the
tenth century. The place of his birth is unknown.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Ishak-Al-Hos ree , (or
Al-Hosri,) a noted poet, born near Kairwan in Africa ;
died in 1061.

Aboo-Jaafar, (or -Jafar.) See MANSOOR, AL.

Aboo-1- ( Abu-1-) Abbas- Abdallah, a bool ab bSs
ab-dril lah, surnamed As-SEFFAii (as-sef fah ,) i.e. "the
shcddcr of blood," the twenty-second caliph of the East,
and the first of the dynasty of the Abbassides, was born
at Damascus about 720 A.D. He was a descendant
of Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed. His family had

always, during the usurpation of the house of Omey
yah, considered themselves the rightful heirs to the
caliphate; at length, during the reign of Merwan II.,
the standard of revolt was raised in Khorassan. Upon
hearing this, Merwan caused Ibrahcem, the brother
of Aboo-1-Abbas-Abdallah, the representative of the
line of Abbas, to be seized and put to death. His broth
ers, Aboo-1-Abbas and Aboo-Jaafar, being then absent
from Damascus, fled to Koofah, ( Kufah,) where the former
was proclaimed caliph by the people, (A.I). 749.) Mer
wan, having advanced against the rebels with an army,
was defeated, and fled to Damascus, and thence to Egypt,
where he was overtaken and slain. It is estimated that
more than one hundred of the Omeyyah family fell vic
tims to the vengeance of the new caliph. As-Seffah died
in 754. Notwithstanding his severity against the ene
mies of his family, he is represented by some historians
as a liberal, benevolent, and able prince. He was
esteemed the handsomest man of his time.

See WEIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. ii. chap, i.; D HER-
BELOT, " Bibliotheque Orientale."

Aboo-1-ala, (Abu-l- ala,) a boor a la, a famous Ara
bian poet, born in Syria about 970. When only four
years old, he lost his sight from the small-pox. He used
to call himself "the doubly-imprisoned captive," allud
ing to his blindness and the voluntary seclusion in which
he devoted himself to study. He soon won so great a
reputation that his house was filled with students, who
came to him from different countries. Died in 1057.

Abool-Cacem. Sec AHOO-L-KASIM.

Aboolfaraj, (Abu-1-faraj,) a boor far aj, (or-far aj,)
an eminent Arabian author and compiler, a descendant
of Merwan II., born at Ispahan in 897. His works are
numerous and very valuable. Died at Bagdad in 967.

Aboolfaraj, (Abu-1- (or Aboul-) faraj,) [written in
French ABOULFARADGE, a bool fa raj ; Latin, ABUL-
FARA GIUS or ABULPHARA GIUS ; called aiso BARHE-
BR/E US,] GREGORIUS, an eminent historical writer,
born in Armenia in 1226. At the age of twenty he was
ordained Bishop of Cuba by Ignatius, the patriarch of
the Jacobite Christians. About 1266 he was chosen
Primate of the Jacobites, which position he held till his
death in 1286. His entire life was devoted to literature,
principally history, in which he left works of great
value. He wrote in Arabic and Syriac. His talents
and virtues gained for him the esteem of Mohammedans
as well as Christians.

See ABOULFARADGE, in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."

Aboolfaraj (Abu- (or Abou-) 1-faraj) OF RON AH,
a distinguished Persian poet, born in the first half of the
eleventh century. He lived at the court of Ibraheem
of Ghiznee, (Gazna.) He died, it is supposed, about 1090.
Aboolfazl, (Abu-1-fazlor Aboul-Fazl,) a bool fdz l,
(commonly pronounced in India ub ool-fuz l,) the en
lightened minister and historiographer of Akbar, the
greatest of the Mogul emperors. The date of his birth
is unknown. In 1572 he was raised to the office of prime
minister, which he held for about twenty-eight years.-
He was waylaid and assassinated about the year 1600,
leaving behind him the justly-won reputation of an ex
cellent historian, and of a wise, virtuous, and truly great
man. His works are numerous and extremely valuable.
Among them we may mention the "Akbar Namah," a
minute history of the times of Akbar ; "Ayeen Akbari,"
(or " Ayin-i-Akbari,") " Institutes of Akbar ;" and a post
humous work entitled " Muktoobat," (or "Maktubat,")
the "writings," or "letters," including Aboolfazl s own
correspondence.

See Auoui.F/.zr., in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generate."

Aboolfeda, (Abu-1-feda* or Aboulfeda,) a boor
fed a" or a-boo /fe-da , a prince and warrior, and one of
the most celebrated of the Arabian authors, was born at
Damascus about 1273. He was a direct descendant
from Aiyoob, (Aiyub,) the founder of the Aiyoobite dynas
ty in Egypt. His family had possessed the throne of Ha-

* It may be proper to observe that the Latin name AHULFEDA
forms the genitive very irregularly AIHLFED.*:. This peculiarity is
owing to the fact that the A bft in the first part of the name has in
Arabic Abl for its genitive. In like manner, we say (in the nomi
native) Abu Talib ; but Ibn Abi TSiib, the "son of Abfi Talib," the
change of u (oo) to i (ee) being necessary to mark the genitive case.

c as /; 9asj; ^hard; g as/; G, H, v.&gt;itttnral; \, nasal; R, trilh d; sass; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

ABOO-L-HASSAN

ABOO-SAEED

mah, but the fief which they held having been declared
extinct by Nasir, (or An-Nasir-Ibn-Kalaun,) Sultan of
Syria and Egypt, Aboolfedawas deprived of his inherit
ance. Upon this he entered the service of the sultan,
and was with him in all his wars against the Tartars.
Afterwards, as an acknowledgment of his eminent ser
vices, the sultan conferred upon him the title of Prince
of Hamah. He remained in undisturbed possession
of his newly-acquired dignity until his death in 133 1.
All the Moslem writers agree in representing Aboolfeda
as a man of the greatest talents ; he was as much dis
tinguished for skill and courage in the field as for wis
dom and prudence in the divan. In spite of the cares
of his government, he devoted much of his attention to
the cultivation of literature. He has left valuable works
on history, geography, and medicine. His work enti
tled "The Description of the Countries" is considered
to be the best and most complete Arabic geography
which exists. His great history, called "An Abridgment
of the History of Mankind," is a work of vast erudition.
Besides containing a history of the Mohammedans from
the birth of the prophet down to the date of the work
itself, (1328,) it furnishes much information respecting
Arabia before the time of Mohammed, the ancient Per
sian dynasties, the Copts, the Hindoos, etc.

See "Nouvelle Biographic Gsnerale ;" ERSCH und GRUBER,
"Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."

Aboo-1 -Hassan or Abu-1- (Aboul-) hassan,
a bool has san, an Arabian astronomer, who nourished
in Morocco in the beginning of the thirteenth century.

Aboo-1-Hassan, (or Abu-1- (Aboul-) hassan,) writ
ten also Aboul-Hagan, a Samaritan, who embraced
the Mohammedan religion and repaired to the court of
the King of Damascus, by whom he was appointed vizier
about the year 1231. Accompanying an expedition into
Egypt, he was taken prisoner and put to death in 1251.

Aboo-1-Hassan or Aboul-Hagan, (Alee (or All)
Ibn Omar, d lee ib n o mar,) an Arabian astronomer
of Morocco, lived about the year 1200. He wrote a valu
able treatise on philosophical instruments, which was
translated into French by Sedillot.

Aboo-1-Kasim, Abu-1-kasim, or Aboul-cacem,
a bodl ka sim, [in Latin, ALKUCA SIS or ABULCA SIS,] the
most celebrated of all the Arabian writers on surgery.
Scarcely anything is known of his life ; he is supposed
to have practised medicine in Cordova in the latter
part of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth
century, and to have died about mo. His principal
work, which treats of anatomy, physiology, the practice
of medicine, and surgery, is one of extraordinary value.
That portion which is devoted to surgery has been pro
nounced the best treatise on this subject that has come
down to us from antiquity. It is especially interesting
and valuable to those who desire to trace the gradual
progress of the surgical art in its various departments.

See WUSTENFF.LD, "Geschichte der Arabischen Aer/.te ;" SPREN-
GEL, "History of Medicine."

Aboo-1-Kasim, ( Abu-1-kasim or Abou-1-cacem,)

a distinguished Mohammedan theologian and poet, born
in the province of Valencia, Spain, about 1143. He
visited several foreign countries, and finally settled in
Cairo, where he was appointed to a professorship. He
died in 1194. He wrote several works on the Koran,
which are highly esteemed.

Aboo-1-Kasim or Aboul-Cacem, a Turkish gen
eral, lived about 1050. He took Nicasa, and advanced
towards Constantinople, but was repulsed by Taticius,
and put to death by the Shah of Persia.

Aboo-l-Kasim-Mansoor. See FIRDOUSKE.

Abop-1-Khatar or Abul- (Aboul-) Khattar, a bool
Kat taR , a governor of Spain under the caliphs. He
was a native of Arabia, and was sent by the Viceroy
of Africa to quiet the contending factions by which
Spain was at that time distracted. He arrived in Cor
dova in 743 A. a At first he was entirely successful, but
at length a rebellion broke out, which he was unable to
quell ; and he was finally slain by the conquering party.

Aboo-1-Maalee or Abul- (Aboul-) Maali, a bool
ma a-lee, a learned Persian who flourished in the reign
of Bahrain Shah, of Ghiznee, between 1118 and 1152.

Aboo-1-Mahanee or Abul- (Aboul-) mahani,

a bool ma-ha nce, an Arabian astronomer, who lived at
the court of Al-Mamoon, the seventh caliph of the Ab-
bassides, between 813 and 833.

Aboo-1- Wafa or Abul- (Aboul-) Wafa, a b6ol
wa f & , a distinguished mathematician and astronomer,
born in Khorassan about 940 ; died in 998. He was
employed at Bagdad, with other eminent astronomers,
to correct the astronomical tables of Aboo-1-Mahanee.

Aboo-1-Waleed or Abul- (Aboul-) Walid,
a bool wa-leed , a famous Mohammedan divine, born at
Beja, in Portugal, about 1012. His talents and learning
attracted the notice of Al-M66tamcd, King of Seville, by
whom he was appointed chief justice, which position he
held till his death, in 1081.

Aboo-1- Waleed or Abul- (Aboul-) Walid, a dis
tinguished Moslem divine and historian, born at Alep
po about the year 1400 ; died 1478.

Aboo-1- Waleed- (or Abul- (Aboul-) Walid-) Ibn-
Jehwar Ib n-jeh waR or -jeh war, the second sul
tan of Cordova of the Jehwar dynasty, whose capita^
was treacherously wrested from him by Al-Mootamed
King of Seville, about the year 1045; the latter having
with a large army entered Aboo-1- Walecd s kingdom
with the professed object of assisting him against Al
Mamoon, King of Toledo. Aboo-1-Waleed died, or was
killed, soon after.

Abool-Waleed-Mohammed-Ibn-Roshd. See

AVERROES.

Aboo-Mansoor, (Abu-Maiisur or Abou-Man-
soiir,) a boo man sooR , a distinguished astronomer,
born at Mecca in 855. He lived at the court of the
caliph Al-Mamoon, who appointed him president of an
academy of astronomers at Bagdad, and committed to
his superintendence the building of two observatories.
The time of his death is unknown.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Merwan or Merouan,
a boo meR wSn , a distinguished Mohammedan divine,
born at Seville about 1170. He was for several years
chief justice of his native city. Having made a pil
grimage to Mecca, he died at Cairo, on his return, in 1237.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Mos lem, (or -Muslim,) a
general, who contributed greatly to the overthrow of the
Omeyyah dynasty and the establishment of that of the
Abbassides, was born about 720 A.I). Neither his fidelity
nor the greatness of his merits availed him against the
jealous cruelty of a sovereign whom he had raised to
the throne. Aboo-Jaafar had employed him in quelling
some formidable rebellions which threatened to dismem
ber the empire. But, when his services were no longer
needed, the caliph, having invited him, with every mark
of friendship, to visit him in his palace at Roomeeyeh,
(Rumiyyah,) caused Aboo-Moslcm to be basely assas
sinated, in 755. Although Aboo-Moslem s character
was undoubtedly stained with many crimes, he appears
to have been always faithful to his sovereign.

S^e WEIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap, xvii., and vol.
ii. chaps, i. and ii.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Nowas no-wass , an Ara
bian poet, born about 744, and died about Sio A. I).

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Obeyd o bad or -o bid ,
a noted Mohammedan geographer and historian, born
in Spain about 1040. He was vizier to Mohammed,
King of Almeria. Died about 1095.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Obeydah o-ba dah, a
celebrated Mohammedan general, who commanded un
der the caliphs Aboo-Bekr and Omar. He died of the
plague, at Damascus, in 639.

Aboo-Reehan or Abu- (Abou-) Rihaii, written
also Abou-Ryhan, a boo ree hftn , a distinguished
Arabian astronomer, born about 970; died in 1038.
He was employed on several embassies by Al-Mamoon,
(Mainiin,) Sultan of Kharasm.

Aboo-Saeed or Abu- (Abou-) Said, a boo sa-eed ,
the ninth of the Persian kings of the race of Jengis
Khan, ascended the throne in 1317. lie was a weak
prince, being ruled first by his favourite, the emir Choo-
ban, and afterwards by his wife, the daughter of that
nobleman. He died in 1335, at the age of thirty.

Aboo-Saeed-Meerza, ( Abu-Said-Mirza or Abou
Said Mirza,) a boo sa-eed meer zS, a prince of the
Moguls, born about 1427, was a descendant of Tamei lane.

i, e, T, 5, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mit; n5t; good; moon;

ABOO-SAHL-ISA

ABRAHAM

Having invaded Irak and Azerbaijan, he was taken
prisoner and put to death in 1469.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Sahl-Isa, a boo san l is a,
(or ee sa,) an eminent Christian physician of Khorassan,
tutor to the famous Avicenna, (Ibn-Seena.) He lived in
the early part of the eleventh century.

Aboo-Salat or Abfl- (Abou-)s-Salat, a boo sal dt,
(or sal at,) a Spanish physician, astronomer, and poet,
born in 1068; died in 1134.

Aboo- (Abou- 01 Abu-) Sofiaii, (Sophian or So-
phyaii,) a boo so-fe-fln , a chief among the Koreish, who
distinguished himself by his obstinate hostility to the
claims of Mohammed. After all resistance was vain,
he reluctantly acknowledged the divine mission of the
prophet. Aboo-Sofian was the father of the caliph
Moaweeyeh, the founder of the Omeyyah dynasty at
Damascus. (See MOHAMMED.)

Aboo-Tahir or Abu- (Abou-) Tahir, a boo ta hjr,
the chief of a sect called Karmatians, who, with a com
paratively small number of followers, took and plun
dered Koofah, (Kufah,) Mecca, and several other cities of
Asia, and at length, in 931, was bold enough to advance,
with only 500 horse, to within a short distance of Bagdad.
He suddenly attacked, defeated, and took prisoner
Abissaj, (a be-saj ,) whom, at the head of 30,000 men,
the caliph had sent against him. Died in 943. Bahrein,
on the Persian Gulf, was the capital of his dominions.

Aboo-Talib, (or -Taleb,) Abu-Talib, or Abou-
Talib, (or -Thaleb,) a boo ta lib, written also Ebu-
Thalib, an uncle of Mohammed, and the father of Alee,
(AH,) who married the prophet s only daughter, Fatimah.
He belonged to the illustrious tribe of Koreish, and
flourished in the latter half of the sixth and beginning
of the seventh century. Died about 620 A.D. (See MO
HAMMED.)

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Talib, (pronounced by the
Hindoos lib oo ta lib,) a native of India, born at Luck-
now in 1752. For a number of years he was em
ployed by the East India Company in various offices,
civil and military. At length, in 1800, he visited Eng
land, where he was received with the most flattering at
tentions by the royal family and many of the nobility.
He returned to India through France, Italy, Turkey,
and Persia. He wrote a very interesting journal of his
travels, a translation of which into English has been
published. Died in 1806.

Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Temam te-mam , a
famous Arabian poet, born in Syria about 805 A.D.
He spent the first years of his life in Damascus in the
service of a tailor. He afterwards repaired to Bagdad,
where he was munificently patronized by the caliph and
the officers of his court. Died in 845.

Aboo-Yakoob-Yoosuf, Abu-Ya kub-Yusuf, or
Abou-Yakoub-Yousouf, (or -Yousef,) a boo ya -
kool/ yoo soof, (or yoo suf,) the third sultan of Africa and
Spain of the Almohade dynasty, succeeded his father,
Abd-el-Moomen, in 1163. In 1184 he was mortally
wounded before the walls of Santarem, a fortress of Por
tugal, in the possession of the Christians, which he had
besieged with a large army. Aboo-Yakoob was a mild
and enlightened sovereign, and a patron of learning.

Aboo-Yoosuf, Abu-Yusuf, or Abou-Yousef, an
eminent Moslem divine, born at Koofah (Kufah) about
731 A.D. In consequence of his great talents and legal
knowledge, he was appointed chief judge of Bagdad, an
office which he held till his death, in 798. In the latter
part of his life he was the subject of the famous Haroun
al-Raschid.

Aboo-Yoosuf-Yakoob, Abu-Yusuf-Ya kub, or
Abou- Yousouf-Yakoub, a boo yoo soof ya koob ,
surnamed ALMANSOOR, (AL-MANSUR,) "The Victorious,
the fourth sultan of Africa and Spain of the Almohade
dynasty, was born at Morocco in 1160. He succeeded
his father Aboo-Yakoob-Yoosuf, who fell at the siege
of Santarem, in 1184. Having established himself on
his throne, and put down several rebellions in his Afri
can dominions, he determined to cross the Straits of
Gibraltar and avenge the death of his father. He made,
in all, three expeditions into the Spanish peninsula : in
the first (1189) he took captive, of both sexes, 40,000
persons, whom he led into Africa and settled at Rabatt,

near Sale ; in the second (1190) he reduced the fortress
of Torres and the town of Silves in Portugal ; in the
third (1195) he defeated the Christians under Alphonso
III., in a great battle near Valencia ; after which he took
Calatrava, Guadalajara, Madrid, Alcala, and Salamanca
He died at Morocco in 1 198, leaving behind him the char
acter of an able and enlightened prince. He has been pro
nounced the greatest and best of the Almohade sultans.

Aboubecre. See ABOO-BEKR.

Abou-Bekr. Sec AKOO-BEKR.

Abou-1-Cacem, (or Kasim.) See AKOO-L-KASIM.

Abou-1-Casim-Mansour. See FIRDOUSKE.

Aboulfaradge. See ABOOLFARAJ.

Aboul-Hagan. See AKOO-L-HASSAN.

About, 5 boo , (EDMOND FRANCOIS VALENTIIS ,) a
successful and pithy French writer, born at Dicuze (in
Meurthe) in 1828. Having passed some time at Athens,
he published, in 1855, a work on modern Greece, " La
Grece contemporaine," which is said to be remarkable
for the best qualities of a truly French style. His ro
mance entitled "Tolla" (1855) is also much admired.
He has written several novels, among which are "The
King of the Mountains," (1856,) and "Germaine," (1857,)
and a remarkable political work on the " Roman Ques
tion," (about 1860,) which shows a decided sympathy for
the liberal cause.

Abou-Tahir. See ABOO-TAHIR.

Abou-Taleb, (or-Thaleb.) See ABOO-TALIK.

Abou-Yousouf. See Anoo-YoosuF.

Aboville, d , dt bo vel , (FRANgois MARIE,) COMTE,
a French general, born at Brest in 1730. He served with
distinction as colonel at Yorktown, Virginia, where he
directed the artillery, (1781,) became a general about
1790, and opposed Dumouriez at the time of his defec
tion, 1793. Under the regime of Bonaparte he was in
spector-general of artillery, and senator. Died in 1817.

Abrabanel, a-i:Ra ua-neT, [Span. pron. almost av-Ra -
va-nel ,] written also Abarbanel and Abrabaniel,
(ISAAC,) the most illustrious of all the Spanish rabbis,
was born in Lisbon in 1437. His family, which was sup
posed to be descended from King David, had dwelt in
Spain from a very early period. The parents of Abra
banel were rich, and no expense was spared in his edu
cation. Endowed with extraordinary quickness of in
tellect and great powers of application, he soon made
himself master of all the learning of that time, and was
particularly distinguished for his thorough acquaintance
with the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the rabbis.
His great abilities attracted the attention of Alphonso
V. of Portugal, who frequently consulted him on the
most important affairs. On the death of this king, in
1481, his son, John II., yielding to the bigoted spirit of
that age, banished Abrabanel from his presence and
forced him to seek refuge in Spain. Here he was at
first received with great favour by Ferdinand and Isa
bella ; but in 1492 a decree was promulgated by which
all the Jews were banished from the Spanish dominions
and their property confiscated. Abrabanel fled at first
to Naples ; he afterwards resided for a short time in
several of the Italian cities, and at last died in Venice
in 1508. His works consist of commentaries on various
parts of the Scriptures. They are considered by the
best judges to display not only the greatest learning, but
powers almost unrivalled in this species of writing.

See ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana;" LE LONG, " Bibliotheca
Sacra;" J. H. MAI, "DissertiUio cle Vita et Scriptis Abrabanielis,"
1703.

Ab-ra-da tas, a king of Susa, who at first fought on
the side of the Assyrians, but afterwards attached him
self to Cyrus the Great, King of Persia. He fell in the
war which Cyrus waged against Croesus.

See XENOPHON S " Cyropreclia," book v.

Abraham, a bra-ham, [Heb. Dmnx,] or Abram
a bram, one of the most eminent of the Hebrew patri
archs, was born at Ur, a city of Chaldea, about 2000 years
(it is supposed) before the Christian era. " Abraham"
signifies the "father of a numerous people," and
"Abram" "exalted father." In consequence of his ex
emplary obedience and trust in God, he has been hon
oured with the title of " father of the faithful." He died
at or near Hebron, aged 175 years. (See Genesis xi.-xxv.)

Explanations, p. 23.)

ABRAHAM

ABSTRTUS

Abraham-a-Sancta-Clara a-sank ta kla ra, an
Augustine friar, regarded as the greatest popular preach
er of Germany during the seventeenth century, was born
in Suabia, in 1642. His proper name was ULRIC ME-
GERLE, (ma ger-la). He studied philosophy and theo
logy in the Augustine convent at Vienna. In 1662 he
entered holy orders, and took the degree of doctor of
* divinity; in 1669 the emperor Leopold appointed him
preacher to the imperial court at Vienna, which office
he continued to hold for many years. He died in 1 709,
leaving many religious works.

See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Oester-
reichisches Biographisclies Lexikon," Vienna, 1851.

Abraham-Bar-Chasdai-Hallevi baR-iias dl hal -
leh-vee , a Jewish rabbi, born at Barcelona, Spain, lived
in the last half of the twelfth century. He wrote " The
Book of the Soul," and other works.

Abraham-Beii-Chaiiania-Jagel (or -Jaghel)
ki-na-nee a ya gel, an Italian rabbi, was bom near the
close of the sixteenth century. He wrote a work en
titled " The Book of Good Doctrine," a catechism on
the articles of the Jewish faith, which is much cele
brated. He embraced Christianity about the beginning
of the seventeenth century, and was baptized by the
name of Camillus Jaghel. The exact time of his death
is unknown.

Abraham-Beii-Dior cle oR , (The Levite,) a famous
rabbi, born at Toledo, in Spain, in the early part of the
twelfth century. He is said to have been a personal
friend of Maimonides, who speaks of him with great
respect. He is supposed to have suffered death on ac
count of his religion about the year 1180.

Abraham-Beii-Haja (-ha ya) or -Chaja, (-Ka ya,)
a Spanish rabbi, wrote a treatise " On Nativities," and
one entitled the "Globe of the World," (" Spha^ra Mun-
di," 1546.) Died in 1105.

Abraham-Beii-Isaac-Zahalon za-ha-lon , a dis
tinguished Spanish rabbi, who lived in the sixteenth
century. He was an excellent lawyer, an eminent astron
omer, and also a poet. He was banished from Spain
with the other Jews, and took refuge in Italy.

Abraham-di- (or de-) Balmis de bal mes, a cele
brated Italian rabbi and physician, born at Lecce in the
latter part of the fifteenth century. Died about 1522.

Abraham-Zacuth (or -Zacut, -za-koot ) or -Zacu-
tho za-koo to, [Span. pron. tha-koot or thd-koo to,] a
Spanish rabbi and astronomer, born at Salamanca near
the middle of the fifteenth century. He was one of the
Jews banished from Spain in 1492. On leaving his na
tive country he went to Portugal, where he was kindly
received by King Emmanuel and appointed astronomer
and chronographer royal. The date of his death is un
known.

Abram, f bRON , (NICHOLAS,) a learned French Je
suit, born near Charmes, in 1589. In 1636 he became
professor of theology in the University of Pont-a-Mous-
son. Died in 1655.

Abranches, de, da a-bRan she s, (ALVARO,) a Por
tuguese noble, who took a prominent part in the revo
lution which occurred in 1640, and which resulted in the
expulsion of the Spaniards from Portugal.

Abrantes, a-bRan tes, fourth MARQUIS OF, a Portu
guese nobleman, born in 1784. He occupies a promi
nent place in the political history of his country from
1807 to 1824, when, in consequence of the part which he
took in the murder of the Marquis of Louie, he was ban
ished from Portugal. He went first to Italy, and thence
to England, where he died in 1827.

Abrantes, DUKE OF. See JUNOT.

Abresch, a bResh, (FRIEDRICH LUDWIG,) a learned
German author, born at Hesse-Homburg in 1699. He
studied at the University of Utrecht. His parents had
designed him for the Church, but his own inclinations
led him to devote himself wholly to classical literature.
Among his works are " Notes on ./Eschylus and Thucy-
dicles." He was rector of the College of Micldelburg,
1725-41. Died in 1782.

Abreu, d , da bre-oo, (ALEXIS,) a distinguished Por
tuguese physician, born about 1570. In 1606 he was ap
pointed consulting physician to Philip III. of Spain.
Died in 1630.

Abreu y Bertodano, de, da a bae-oo ebeR-to-Da no,
(FELIX JOSE,) a Spanish knight, (caballero,) son of the
Marquis de Regalia, born about 1720. He devoted him
self to the study of international law, and published,
in 1746, a "Treatise on Maritime Prizes," (Trataclo ju-
ridico-politico sobre Presas de Mar,") which attracted
considerable attention. From 1755 to 1760 he was
envoy extraordinary to the court of St. James. The
year of his death is unknown.

Abreu y Bertodano, de, (JosE ANTONIO,) a Span
ish writer on international law, was brother to the pre
ceding. Died in 1775.

Abrial, a bRe tl , (JOSEPH ANDRE,) a French advo
cate, born in 1750, at Annonay, was educated in the
College of Louis-le-Grand, at Paris. He was sent in
1 800 to Naples, in order to organize a republican gov
ernment, in which work he manifested great ability.
During the whole of his administration, his mildness
and moderation won for him the affection of the Nea
politans. He was made senator, and received the title of
count, under Napoleon, but was nevertheless one of
the first to vote for his dethronement in 1814. He was
afterwards created a peer by Louis XVIII. Died in
1828.

Abriani, a-bRe-d nce, (PAOLO,) an Italian poet, born
at Viccnza in 1607. He was employed as professor
or teacher in Genoa, Verona, and Padua. Among his
works are a volume of sonnets, " Canzoni," etc., and a
poetical version of Horace s "Art of Poetry," (1663.)
Died at Venice in 1699.

Abril, a-BReel , almost a-vReel , [in Latin, APRI LIS,]
(PEDRO SIMON,) a Spanish grammarian, who is supposed
to have died near the close of the sixteenth century.
He was the author of a number of books, some of which
are in Spanish, and some in Latin

Abruzzi, a-bRoot scc, a landscape-painter, who lived
in Rome towards the close of the last century.

Abruzzo, a-bRoot so, (BALDASSARE,) a Sicilian philos
opher and civilian, born about 1600; died in 1665.

Ab sa-lom, [Heb. rDl^tJON,] the third son of Da
vid, was born in Hebron after his father ascended the
throne. Possessed of winning manners and an ex
ceedingly handsome person, he became very popular
throughout the land of Israel, and at length sought
openly to dethrone his father. In the battle which was
subsequently fought, Absalom was slain by Joab, al
though King David had expressly commanded that the
life of his son should be spared. The rebellion of Ab
salom is supposed to have occurred in 1036 li.c. (See
II. Samuel xiii.-xviii.)

Absalon, ab sa-lon , called also Axel, a descendant
of Slagus, was born in Iceland in 1128. He studied in
Paris, and in 1 178 was appointed to the archbishopric of
Lund, in Scania, which office he held till his death in
1 20 1. Absalon was undoubtedly one of the greatest
men of his age ; he was a wise counsellor to his king, a
brave general, and a generous patron of learning.

See ESTRUP, "Absa .on considere comme heros, homme d fitat et
eveque," 1856.

Abschatz, ap shats, (HANS Assmann ass man,)
BARON OF, a poet and statesman, born in Silesia in 1646.
He studied jurisprudence at the Universities of Stras-
burg and Leyden. In 1675 he was appointed governor
of the principality of Liegnitz, and afterwards was Sile-
sian ambassador at the court of Vienna. Died in 1699.
He is ranked among the principal German poets of the
seventeenth century. Many hymns of his composition
are still sung in the Protestant churches.

Abshoven. See APSHOVEN.

Abstemlo, ab-sta me-o, or Astemio, [Lat. AKSTE -
Mius,] (GiAMPiETRO,) an eminent teacher, who lived in
Friuli about the middle of the sixteenth century. His
school was attended by young men of the first Italian
families.

Ab-ste mi-us Lau-reii ti-us, (lau-rcn shcvus,) [It.
ASTEMIO, as-ta/me-o,] an Italian writer, who was born
at Macerata in the latter half of the fifteenth century.
Besides several works on grammar and criticism, and
one on geography, he wrote, in Latin, a book of Fables,
which at one time enjoyed considerable popularity.

Ab-syr tus or Apsyr tus, [Gr. "Ai/wp7oc; Fr. AH

a, e, I, 6, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;

AEU-BAKR

ACCOLTI

SYRTK, ab seRt ,] a son of /Eetcs, King of Colchis, was
a brother of Medea, who took him with her when she
fled with Jason. When she was pursued by her father,
she killed her brother and scattered his severed limbs
along the road, in order to retard the pursuit.

AJ1U, ABU, or ABU, a prefix to many Arabian
names. See ABOO.

Abu-Bakr, (or -Bacr.) See ABOO-BEKR.
Abubeker or Abubekr. See ABOO-BEKR.

A-bu ca-ra, [Gr. A.povK.apd,] (THKODORUS,) a Chris
tian theological writer, who lived in the eighth century.
Of the circumstances of his life little or nothing is known.
He wrote a great number of works, mostly in Greek,
though a few arc in Arabic.

Ab-u-dac nus, (JOSEPH,) a native of Cairo, who, about
the year 1600, was a teacher of Arabic at Oxford. Be
sides some grammatical treatises on Hebrew, he wrote
a " History of the Copts," (" Historia Jacobitarum seu
Coptorum in /Egypto Libya," etc.)

See WOOD, "Athenae Oxonienses."

Abulfaragius. See ABOQLFARAJ.

Abul-Faraj, (or Farage.) See ABOOI.FARAJ.

Abulfeda. See ABOOI.FEDA.

Abul-Kasim or Abu-1-Kasim. Sec ABOO-L-KASIM.

Abu-1-Kasim-Mansur. See FIRDOUSEE.

Abulola. See AHOO-I.-AI.A.

Abulpharagius. See ABOOI.FARAJ.

Abul-Walid-Ibn-Roshd. See AVERROES.

Abundance, d , di buN d&Nss , (JEAN,) a French
poet and satirist, who flourished in the early part of the
sixteenth century. Nothing is known of his life ; the
name is supposed by some to be fictitious. One of his
works is entitled "The Great and Marvellous Acts of
Nobody," (" Lcs Grands et Merveilleux Faits de Nemo.")

Ab-y-de nus, [ A ; 3u&lt;V wc,] a Greek historian, who
wrote a work on Assyria, very valuable, so far as can be
judged from the few fragments which remain. Of his life
nothing is known.

Acace. The French spelling of AcACius, which see.

Acacius, a-ka shc-us, [Gr. Awktoc; Fr. ACACE,
S kiss ,] a bishop of Caesare a, who succeeded Eusebius
in 339 A.D. Died about 366.

Acacius, a philosopher and rhetorician of Caesarea,
contemporary with the preceding.

Acacius, a bishop of Beroe, who lived in the fourth
and fifth centuries.

Acacius, a bishop of Amicla, in Mesopotamia, who
ransomed 7000 Persians that had been taken prisoners
by the Romans, about the beginning of the fifth century.

Acacius, a patriarch of Constantinople, to which
dignity he was appointed in 471 A.I). He was ambi
tious and crafty, and aimed to raise the church of Con
stantinople above all other Eastern churches. Died in
489.

Ac-a-de mus [ Am tAri/ior] or Hec-a-de mus, an
Athenian, who disclosed, it is said, to Castor and Pollux
the place where their sister Helen was secreted. The
garden or grove called Acadcinia, in which Plato found
ed his school of philosophy, is supposed to have been
named in honour of Academus.

Acamapichtli, a-ka-ma-petcr/tlee, the first king of
Tenochtitlan or Mexico, was elected to the throne,
according to the Mexican annalists, in the year 1352.
His authority extended only to the Aztecs inhabiting
the island on which Tenochtitlan was built. Under his
reign the Aztecs increased in fame, stone edifices were
built, and canals were constructed. Died^in 1389.

Ac a-nia.s, \ \Kafj.ag,] a son of Theseus and Phoodra,
is said to have been sent with Diomede to Troy to
demand the surrender of Helen. According to Virgil,
he was one of the band enclosed in the wooden horse.

Agarq, d , dt stak , a French critic and grammarian,
who was born in 1720 and died in 1795-

A-cas tus, [Gr. "A/caaror; Fr. ACASTK, S kSst ,] a son
of Pel i as, King of lolcus, was one of the Argonautnc. He
married Astydami a, who, by false accusations, produced
an enmity between Acastus and Peleus.

Ac ca, a learned bishop of Hexham, a contemporary
and friend of the celebrated Bede. Died in 740 A.D.

Ac ca Lauren tia (lau-ren she-a) or Larentia, la-

as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K ,

rOn she-a, the wife of the shepherd Faustulus, is said
to have been the nurse of Romulus and Remus. Ac
cording to one tradition, she was a courtesan who was
renowned for her beauty, and who bequeathed a large
sum of money to the Roman people in the time of An-
cus Martius.

Accama, ak ka-ma, (BERNARD,) a Dutch historical
and portrait painter, born in Friesland. Died in 1756.

Accarigi, ak-ka-ree jee, or Accarisi, ak-ka-ree see,
[Lat. ACCARIS IUS,] (FRANCESCO,) a distinguished pro
fessor of civil law, born at Ancona about 1550. He
taught successively in the Universities of Sienna, Parma,
and Pisa. Died at Pisa in 1622.

Accarrigi, (jACoro,) a native of Bologna, who was
professor of rhetoric in the University of Mantua. Died
in 1654.

Accarisio, ak-ka-ree se-o,(Ai,BERTO,) an Italian, born
at Cento, near Ferrara, in the early part of the sixteenth
century, was the author of an Italian grammar of some
celebrity.

Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, at-cha-yo lee, (DoNATO,)
a distinguished Italian scholar, born at Florence in 1428,
wrote commentaries on the ethics and politics of Aris
totle. Died in 1478.

Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (FiLiPPO,) a dramatic writer
and composer, born at Rome in 1637; died in 1700.

Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (NICCOLO or NICHOLAS,)
an eminent statesman, born at Florence about 1310.
He was for many years the chief adviser of Joanna, Queen
of Naples, to whom he was recommended by his talents,
eloquence, and fine personal appearance. Died in 1366.

Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (RENIER,) a Florentine,
who obtained possession of Athens and Corinth about
1364, and was styled Duke of Athens.

See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."

Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (ZENOBIO,) a classical
scholar, born at Florence in 1461, became librarian oi
the Vatican and a friend of Politian. He translated
Eusebius and Thepdoret into Latin, and wrote Latin
verses, which were praised by Giraldi and other critics.
Died in 1519.

Acciajuoli-Salvetti, at-cha-yo lee sal-vet tee, (MAD-
DALENA,) an Italian poetess of Florence, wrote " Rime
Toscanc," and other works. Died in 1610.

Accioli, at-cho lee, (JUAN de Cerqueira y Silva
da seR-ka e-ra e seel va,) a Brazilian historian, born about
the end of the eighteenth century. Among his works is
" Historical and Political Memoirs of the Province of
Bahia," (6 vols., 1835 and the years following.)

Accius, ak she-us, or Attius, at she^us, (Lucius,) a
celebrated Roman tragic poet, born about 170 B.C.
None of his dramas has come down to us entire ; but
the numerous fragments which remain justify the ad
miration with which the ancients regarded him. The
date of his death is unknown.

See SELLARR, "Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. v.

Accius, (Tirus,) a Roman orator, born at Pisaurum,
(now Pesaro,) in Umbria. He lived about 70 years B.C.

Accolti, ilk-kol tee, (BENEDETTO, or BENEDICT,) an
Italian writer, born at Arczzo in 1415. He was doctor
and professor of law at Florence ; in 1459 he was made
chancellor of the republic, which office he held till his
death in 1466. He wrote a Latin history of the conquest
of Palestine by Godfrey of Bouillon, from which Tasso
derived the materials of his great poem.

Accolti, ak-kol tcc, (BENEDETTO,) an Italian cardinal,
born at Florence in 1497, was a grandson of the pre
ceding, and a son of Michcle Accolti. He became a
cardinal in 1527, after which he was sometimes called
Cardinal de Ravenna. He was an elegant Latin poet,
in the opinion of such judges as Vida and Sadoleto, and
was also a patron of learning. Died in 1549.

See AUBEKY, " Histoire cles Carclinatix."

Accolti, (BERNARDO,) a noted Italian poet and im-
provisatore, who lived at the court of Leo X., was a son
of the historian Benedetto, and uncle of the preceding.
Whenever he recited his verses in public, great crowds
flocked to hear him. Died about 1535.

Accolti, (FRANCESCO,) a distinguished Italian lawyer,
(better known as Areti nus or Aretino, a-ra-tee no,) a

Explanations, p. 23.)

AC COLT I

ACHARD

name assumed by several members of his family,) born
at Aiezzo about 1418, was a brother of Benedetto the his
torian. In 1440 he was made professor of law at Bo
logna, and in 1479 was appointed senior professor of
law at Pisa, which position he held till his death, about
1485. Besides a number of works of a strictly profes
sional character, he wrote several essays in general lit
erature, including translations from the ancient authors.

See MAZZUCHELLI, "Scrittori d Italia. "

Accolti, (PiETRO,) Cardinal, son of Benedetto the
historian, was born at Florence in 1455. He held for
some time the professorship of law in the University of
Pisa; afterwards, in 1511, he was made Cardinal of St.
Eusebius. He has generally been called, though incor
rectly, Cardinal of Ancona : it is under this title that he
is said to have had the principal share in preparing the
bull against Luther, in 1520. It is certain that he pos
sessed great influence at the court of Leo X. Died in

1549-

See MAZZUCHELLI, "Scrittori d ltalia."

Accolti, (PiETRO, the younger,) grandson of Cardinal
Benedetto, lived in the early part of the seventeenth
century. He lectured on canon law at Pisa.

Accoramboiai, ak-ko-ram-bo nee, (FABio,) an Ital
ian lawyer, born in 1502. In 1523, or soon after, he was
appointed professor of civil law in the University of Pisa,
and afterwards, about 1527, became professor of canon
law at Rome. Died in 1559.

Accoraniboni, (FELIX,) an Italian philosopher and
physician, a grandson of Geronimo, noticed below, lived
about 1600. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle and
Galen.

Accoraniboni, (GiROLAMO,) an eminent Italian phy
sician, born about 1467, at Gubbio, in the duchy of Ur-
bino. He was professor of medicine at Perugia, and
afterwards at Rome. Leo X. chose him as his own phy
sician. Died in 1537.

Accoraniboni, (VIRGINIA,) an Italian poetess, was
the wife of Francesco Peretti, a nephew of Pope Sixtus
V. She was murdered by Luigi Orsini in 1585.

See ADRY, "Vie de V. Accoramboni," 1807.

Accorso, ak-koR so, [Fr. ACCURSE, t kuRss ,] (Buo-
NO, boo-o no,) written also Buonaccorso, [Lat. BO NUS
ACCUR SIUS,] a celebrated classical scholar and rhetori
cian, native of Pisa, lived in the latter half of the fifteenth
century. He wrote commentaries on the writings of
Caesar and other Latin classics.

Accorso, (or Accursio, ak-kooR se-o,) (MARIAN-
GELO,) an Italian writer and critic, who lived at Rome
in the time of Leo X.

Accuni, ak kum or ak kum, (FRIEDRICH,) a German
chemist, born at Biickeburg in 1769. He emigrated to
London in 1793, and became professor of chemistry
there about 1802. He published an excellent " Practical
Treatise on Gas Light," (1815,) which contributed greatly
to promote the use of gas for illumination of cities.
Among his other works are, "On the Adulteration of
Food," (1822,) and " Essay on Chemical Reagents," (Lon
don, 1816.) Died in Berlin in 1838.

Accurse. See ACCORSO and ACCURSIUS.

Accursii, ak-kur she-I, (CEKVOT TUS,) second son of
A.ccursius, noticed below, born about 1240; died in 1287.

Accursii, ak-kur she-T, or Accursius, ak-kur shc-us,
(FRANCISCUS,) or Accorso, (FRANCESCO,) the sorTof
Accursius mentioned below, was born at Bologna in
1225. He was for several years a counsellor to Edward
I. of England, and afterwards a professor of law at Bo
logna, where he died in 1293.

Accursii, (WILHELMUS,) a third son of Accursius,
mentioned below, bom in 1246, obtained several eccle
siastical preferments, and was for some time in the service
of the pope. Died about 1310.

Accursius, ak-kur .shonis, (the Latinized form of Ac
corso,) [Fr. ACCURSK, IFkiiRss ,] an Italian lawyer,
whose Christian name is supposed to have been FRAN
CESCO, was born in or near Florence about 1182. He
was for many years a teacher of law in Bologna. His
" Glossa," i.e. a collection of glosstz, or notes, made by
different commentators on Justinian, is very celebrated.
Died in 1260.

Acebedo, a-tha-Ba Do, (Don MANUEL,) a Spanish
historical painter, born at Madrid in 1744, and died in
1800.

A-ger bas, or Sichasus, si-kee us, a Tyrian priest,
who married Dido and was murdered by her brother
Pygmalion. Servius gives Sicharbas or Sicharbes for
Sichasus.

Acerbi, a-cheR bee, (ENRICO,) an Italian surgeon,
born at Castano, near Milan, in 1785. Died in 1827.

Acerbi, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian traveller, born near
Mantua in 1773. He performed, in 1799, a journey
through Lapland to Cape North, and published a narra
tive of that journey in English, (1802.) In 1816 he
founded, at Milan, the "Bibliotcca Italiana," a period
ical of some merit. Died in 1846.

Aceriius. See KLONOWICZ.

Ag e-sas [Gr. A/cwa;] or Aceseus, as e-sus, [ A/ce-
ffet f,] a celebrated embroiderer or weaver of remote an
tiquity, was born in Cyprus. The time in which he
lived is unknown.

Acesius, a-see shejis, [ AxecKO?,] a bishop of Constan
tinople, who nourished in the early part of the fourth
century.

A-ges tor, [ A/cecrrwp,] a sculptor of Gnossus,or Cnosus,
in Crete, lived about 430 B.C.

Acevedo or Azavedo, a-tha-va i&gt;o, (FELIX AL
VAREZ,) a brave Spanish officer, born in the province
of Leon, was one of the chiefs of the popular party in
the revolution of 1820. Having gained a victory near
the Minho, he was shot in March, 1820, by some roy
alists whom he had approached with friendly overtures.
The Junta ordered that his name should be retained on
the army list as if he were alive.

Acevedo, de, da a-thi-va Do, (ALONZO MARIA,) an
advocate in the royal council at Madrid, and doctor of
canon law in the University of Salamanca, flourished
from about 1760 to 1770. Died about 1775.

Acevedo, de, (CRISTOBAL,) an eminent Spanish
historical painter, born at Murcia. He studied with B.
Carducci, at Madrid, about 1590, after which he worked
in Murcia. He excelled in design and in grandeur of
expression.

See CEAN -BERMUDEZ, "Diccionario Historico."

Ach, (JOHANNVAN.) See ACHKN.

Achaemeiies, a-kem e-n6z, [Gr. Axaifisvrif,] the fa
ther of a line of Persian kings, named from him
Acn. EMENiD/E, (ak-e-men T-de.) He is supposed to have
been the great-grandfather of Cyrus the Great.

Achceinenidae. See ACH.EMENES.

Achaeus, a-kee us, [Gr. A^aw? ; Fr. ACHEE, t shi ,]
rhe mythical ancestor of the Achaeans, was said to be a
son of Xuthus, a grandson of Helen, and a brother of Ion.

Achaeus, a Greek dramatic writer, born at Eretria,
484 B.C. He wrote several tragedies, but succeeded
best in the satiric drama. Only a few fragments of his
works remain.

Achaeus, a cousin of Antiochus III., by whom he
was appointed governor of Asia Minor. Having re
belled against his sovereign, he was taken and put to
death, 214 B.C.

Achaiiitre, S shaxtR , (NICOLAS Louis,) a French
philologer, born in Paris in 1771, became a school
teacher. He was patronized by Firmin Didot, and pro
duced good editions, with notes, of Horace, (1806,) Juve
nal, (iSio,) and Persius, (1812.) Died about 1830.

Achard, a^sl-iin , (ANTOINE,) a Swiss Protestant min
ister, born at|Geneva in 1696, was an eloquent preacher.
He settled in Berlin in 1724, received the title of privy
counsellor, and was admitted into the Royal Academy
of Berlin in 1743. Two volumes of his sermons were
published, (1774.) Died in 1772.

Achard, t shtR , (CLAUDE FRANC. ois,) a French
writer, born at Marseilles in 1758. Among his works
are a " Description of Provence," (1787,) and " Elements
of Bibliography," (3 vols., 1807.) Died in 1809.

Achard, (FRANZ KARL,) a distinguished German
chemist, son of Antoine Achard, born at Berlin in 1753.
He was elected, in 1776, a member of the Royal Acad
emy of Sciences at Berlin. The extraction of sugar
from the beet-root appears to have engaged his especial

a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good, moon;

ACHARD

ACINELLI

attention ; and his essays on the subject contributed
much towards the introduction of this manufacture into
France. Among his works is "Lectures on Experi
mental Philosophy, (4 vols., 1792.) Died in 1821.

Achard, (Louis AMEDEE EUGENE,) a French writer
of fiction, born at Marseilles in 1814. He removed to
Paris about 1838, and wrote for several journals, amon
which was the "Charivari." His romance "La Belle
Rose" (5 vols., 1847) obtained success.

Achards, de la Baunie des, d li bom d.Vza shtR ,
(fiLEAZAR FRANCOIS,) a French bishop, born at Avi
gnon in 1679. He is commended for acts of charity
during the prevalence of the plague at Marseilles in
1721. Died in Cochin in 1741.

Acharius, a-ka re-us, (ERIK,) a distinguished botan
ist and physician, born at Gefle, in Sweden, in 1757.
He studied at Upsal, under the celebrated Linnasus.
As a botanist, his attention seems to have been chiefly
directed to cryptogamous plants, and especially to lichens.
He published "Lichenographia Universafis," (1810.)
Died in 1819.

See " Biographiskt Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man,"
Upsala and Oerebro, 1835-1856.

A-eha tes, [Fr. ACHATE, i shtt ,]*a friend of /Eneas,
whose fidelity was so exemplary that " Fidus Achates"
became a proverb. (See VIRGIL, "/Eneid," lib. i. 188
and 312.)

Achates, a-Ka tas, (LEONARDUS,) one of the early
printers, who carried the art from Germany into Italy.
He flourished in the latter half of the fifteenth century.

Achelom. See ANTIQUUS.

Acll-e-lo us, [ Ae/,MOf,] a river-god of Greek mythol
ogy, was a son of Oce anus. The poets relate that he
had the assurance to compete with Hercules as a suitor
of Dejanira, and was defeated by that hero in a combat.

Achen or Aachen, van, van a Ken, (JoiiANN,) writ
ten also Ackeii, Fanacheii, and Janachen, an emi
nent German painter of history and portraits, born at
Cologne in 1552. He was employed at Munich by the
Elector of Bavaria, and afterwards at Prague by the em
perors Rudolph and Matthias. Died at Prague about
1620. He was reputed the richest artist of his time.

See DF.SCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamancls," etc.

Achenbach, a Ken-baK , (ANDREAS,) a German
painter, of the Dusseldorf school, born at Cassel in
1815. He excels in landscapes and marine views. He
obtained a medal of the first class at Paris in 1855,
when he exhibited " High Tide at Ostencl ;" a " Moon
light Scene," etc.

Achenbach, (OSWALD,) a brother of the preceding,
and like him distinguished as a painter of landscapes,
was born at Dusseldorf in 1827.

Achenwall, a Ken-vval, (GOTTFRIED,) an eminent
writer on statistics, born at Elbing, in Prussia, in 1719.
He may almost be said to have created the science of
statistics, called by him, in German, Staatswissenschaft,
(in Latin, "Scientia Statistica,") i.e. "the science or in
formation relating to States." He appears to have in
cluded in the terms above cited all those facts of which
a knowledge is necessary to thorough statesmanship.
Accordingly, in his lectures he treated of the laws of
nations and history, as well as of statistics in the present
acceptation of the word. He first taught in the Uni
versity of Marburg; but in 1748 he was employed at
Gottingen, where he continued till his death, in 1772.

Acherley, ak er-le, (ROGER,) an English lawyer and
political writer, who lived in the early part of the eigh
teenth century. He wrote a work on the Britannic Con
stitution, and another on Free Parliaments.

Acheron. See PLUTO.

Achery, d , dt sha re , (JEAN Luc,) a learned French
Benedictine monk, born at St. Cjuentin in 1609. His
most important work is a collection of rare documents,
entitled a "Gleaning [Spicilegium] of certain ojd Wri
ters who have been buried in the Libraries of France,"
(13 vols., 1653-77.) Died in 1685.

A-ellillas, [Gr. A^t/Jtof,] an Egyptian general, who,
on the death of Ptolemy Auletes, was appointed regent

* Chaucer writes the name Achate. (See the " House of Fame.")

of Egypt and guardian to Ptolemy XIII. and his sister
Cleopatra. He was afterwards put to death by Arsinoe,
sister of Ptolemy.

Achilles, a-kiKlexjfGr. A^AAn f; Fr. ACHILLE, t shel ,
It. ACHILLE, a-kel la, j a celebrated Grecian warrior, the
hero of Homer s Iliad, was the son of Peleus, King of
Thessaly, and the sea-nymph Thetis : hence he is often
called PELI DES. The poets feigned that his mother
dipped him into the river Styx to render him invulnera
ble, and that he was vulnerable only in the heel by
which she held him. He led to the siege of Troy a
band of Myrmidones in fifty ships, and performed great
exploits ; but he quarrelled with Agamemnon before the
end of the war, and withdrew from the contest. To
avenge the death of Patroclus, he again took arms, and
slew Hector. He was at last killed by Paris, (or, as some
say, by Apollo,) who shot him in the heel.

See " Iliad, " passhti, and " Odyssey," xxiv. 36.

Achilles, [Ger. pron. a-Kil les,] (ALEXANDER,) a Prus
sian nobleman, whom Ladislaus, King of Poland, sent
on an embassy to Persia. Born in 1584; died in 1675.

Achilles Tatius, a-kil liz ta she-us,) [ A^/iZei f T-
"Of,] a Greek poet and romance-writer, who is sup
posed to have lived in the fourth or fifth century. This
writer, or another of the same name, is the author of an
astronomical work called the "Sphere."

Achillini, a-kel-lee nee, [Lat. ACHILLI NUS,] (ALES-
SANDRO,) a celebrated physician and philosopher, born at
Bologna in 1463. He studied at Paris, and in 1485 be
gan to teach in his native town. In 1506 he was ap
pointed professor of philosophy and medicine at Padua ;
but three years after, in consequence of a war, he re
turned to Bologna, where he died in 1512. He left sev
eral works on anatomy, and some philosophical treatises.

Achillini, (CLAUDIO,) [Lat. CLAU DIUS ACHILLI -
NUS,] born at Bologna in 1574, was professor of law
successively in the Universities of Bologna, Ferrara, and
Parma. lie wrote poems in the inflated style which
was prevalent in his time. He was a grandson of Gio
vanni Filoteo. Died in 1640.

Achillini, (GIOVANNI FILOTEO,) a poet and anti
quary, brother of Alexander the physician, was born
at Bologna in 1466, and died in 1538.

Achish, a/kish, a king of Gath, to whom David fled
from Saul. (See I. Samuel xxi. 10.)

Achitophel, (a-kit o-fel.) See AHITHOPHEL.

Achmet. See AHMED.

Achmet Geduc. See AHMED KEDUK.

Achrelius, a-kree le-us, (DANIEL,) a professor at the
University of Abo, wrote a book against the Copernican
system, in the latter part of the seventeenth century.

See " Biographiskt Lexicon b fvernamnkunnige Svenska Man," Up
sala, 1835.

Achterveldt, aK ter-velt , (JACOB,) a Dutch painter,
who died in 1 704.

Achtschelling, aKt sKCl-ling, (LucAS,) a skilful land
scape-painter, who lived at Brussels towards the close
of the seventeenth century. He was a close imitator of
nature.

Acidalius, as-se-da le-us or at-se-da le-us, (VA LENS,)
a German classical scholar, born at Wittstock, in Bran
denburg, in 1567; died in 1595. His commentaries on
Velleius Paterculus, Quintus Curtius, and other Latin
authors, exhibit much critical acumen.

See LEUSCHNER, "De V. Acidalii Vita, Moribus et Scriptis,"
757-

Acier, 3 se-i , (MICHEL VICTOR,) a French sculptor,
born at Versailles in 1736; died in 1799.

A-gill-us Gla bii-o, (MANius,) a Roman general,
who became consul in 191 D.c., and commanded the army
sent against Antiochus of Syria, whom he defeated at
Thermopylae. He also subdued the Boeotians and /Eto-
lians. A golden statue of Acilius Glabrio was the first
of that material seen in Italy.

Ag-in-dy iius, [ Aw wWof,] (GREGORIUS,) a Greek
monk and polemical writer, who lived at Constantinople
during the fourteenth century.

Ac inelli, a-che-nel lee, a Genoese historian, who
flourished about the middle of the eighteenth century.
He wrote a "History of Genoa," (1745-47.)

as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H . K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( ftj^ See Explanations, p. 23.)

ACK

ACROTATUS

Ack, ak, (JOHN,) a distinguished painter on glass,
who flourished at Brussels about 1550.

Acken, (JAN VAN.) See ACHEN.

Ac ker-mann, [Ger. pron. ak ker-man ,] (CONRAD,)
a celebrated German comedian, born in 1710; died in

Ackermann, (JACOB,) an eminent German physiolo
gist, born near Mentz in 1765. He was professor of
botany and afterwards of anatomy in the University of
Mentz. In 1804 he was appointed to the chair ot anat
omy at Jena, and in 1805 to the same position in Hei
delberg, which he held till his death, in 1813.

Ackermami, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB,) a
physician and distinguished classical scholar and critic,
was born in Upper Saxony in 1756. He studied at Jena
in 1771, and subsequently at Gottingen, under the cele
brated Heyne. Some years after, he was appointed pro
fessor of pathology and therapeutics in the University
of Altorf, where he died in 1801. Among his various
works the lives of Hippocrates, Galen, and other Greek
physicians deserve particular mention.

Ackermann, (RUDOLPH,) a German artist and dealer
in prints, was born in Saxony in 1764. He settled in
London, where he prospered as a print-seller, and estab
lished an extensive repository of arts, which had a
European reputation. He published coloured engrav
ings and lithographs, and an annual or series of annuals
entitled " The Forget-me-not." He is said to have been
the first who introduced lithography as a fine art into
England. According to Jerdan, he published the first
annual in England. Died in 1834.

See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. xiii.

Ac land, (HENRY WENTWORTH,) M.D., F.R.S., a
distinguished English physician, born in 1815, graduated
as M.D. at Oxford in 1848. In 1860 he accompanied the
Prince of Wales to America as his medical attendant.

Acland, (Lady HARRIET,) wife of Major Acland, who
served with distinction in the British army under Bur-
goyne. She accompanied her husband in the campaigns
of 1776-7, of which she wrote a narrative. Her husband
was seriously wounded and taken prisoner in October,
1777. She died in 1815.

Agoka. Sec ASHOKA.

Acoluth, a ko-loot , [Lat. ACOLU THUS,] (ANDREAS,)
a distinguished Oriental scholar, born in Silesia in 1654,
was a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin.
Died in 1704.

Acoluth, (JoiiANN,) a German theologian, born in
Silesia in 1628. Died in 1689.

Acominatus. See NICETAS.

Aconce. See ACONZIO.

Aconz Kover, a konts ko ver, (STEPHEN,) a distin
guished Armenian writer, born in Transylvania in 1740.
His ancestors had removed from Armenia, in Asia, in
1330. He was chosen, in 1800, abbot of the convent of
St. Lazarus at Venice, regarded as the great centre of
Armenian learning. Died in 1824.

Aconzio, a-kon ze-o, (GiACOMO, or JAMES,) [Lat.
JACO BUS ACON TIUS, (a-kon shc-us;) Fr. ACONCE,
S k6Nss / ,] a distinguished writer, IxTrn at Trent about
1500. Having relinquished the Catholic and embraced
the Protestant faith, he left his native country about
1557, and, passing through Switzerland, went to Eng
land, where it is supposed that he died about 1565. He
wrote a book entitled "Stratagems of Satan," (1565,)
which has enjoyed great celebrity. His work on the
Best Method of Acquiring Knowledge, evinces an acute
understanding ; and all his writings show him to have
been a man of learning and literary taste.

Ac o-ris, [Gr. "A/coptc,] a king of Egypt, who nou
rished about 380 B. c. He made war, though with little
success, against Artaxerxes Mnemon, King of Persia.

Acosta, a-kos ta, (CiiRiSTOvAo, or CHRISTOPHER,) a
Portuguese naturalist, who visited India to procure
drugs, and afterwards practised medicine at Burgos.
He wrote a " Treatise on the Drugs and Plants of the
East Indies," (1578.) Died about 1580.

Acosta, (GABRIEL,) a professor of theology at Coim-
bra, Portugal, wrote commentaries on the "Scriptures.
Died in 1616.

Acosta, (JOAQUIN,) a native of South America, a

colonel of engineers in the service of New Granada,
published a " Historical Compendium of the Discovery
and Settlement of New Granada," (1848,) with a good
map of that country.

Acosta, ii-kos ta, or d Acosta, da-kos ta, (JosE,)
a Spanish Jesuit and writer, born at Medina del Campo
about 1539. He went to South America as a missionary
in 1571, returned in 1588, and published a work entitled
"Natural and Moral History of the Indies," ("Historia
Natural y Moral de las Indias," 1590,) which was much
esteemed, and translated into several languages. He
became rector of the University at Salamanca, where he
died in 1600.

Acosta, (URIEL,) a Portuguese, who was educated as
a Christian, converted to Judaism, and afterwards ex
communicated by the Jews in consequence of his having
written against the Mosaic Scriptures and the immor
tality of the soul. He killed himself in 1640, or, accord
ing to some accounts, in 1647.

See his Autobiography, Leipsic, 1847; JELLINEK, "Acostas Le-
be:-.," 1847.

Acquapendente. See FABRICIUS or FABRIZIO,
GERONIMO.

Acquaviva, ak-kwa-vec va, a noble family of Naples
that has produced a number of distinguished command
ers, statesmen, and men of learning. Its representa
tive has for several generations borne the title of Duke
of Atri.

Acquaviva, (ANDREA MATTEO,) Duke of Atri, a tree,
a Neapolitan, born about 1460, was a munificent patron
of learning. Died in 1528.

Acquino, ak-kwec no, a Piedmontese chronicler, who
lived about the beginning of the sixteenth century.

Acquisti, ak-kwes tee or ak-kwis tee, (Luii;[,) an
Italian sculptor, born at Forli in 1744; died in 1824.
He worked at Rome and Milan. A group of " Venus
pacifying Mars" is considered his master-piece.

Ac ra-gas, [Gr. \K(iuym;,} a celebrated engraver or
chaser in silver, supposed to have lived in the fifth cen
tury Il.C.

Acrel, a kuel, (OLOF,) an eminent Swedish surgeon,
born near Stockholm in 1717. Having spent some
time in Paris in observing the practice of the most dis
tinguished surgeons of that city, he entered the French
army in 1743 ; but, after serving in two campaigns, he re
tired on account of ill health. He died at Stockholm in
1807, leaving several surgical works.

See " Biographiskt Lexicon ofver namnknnnige Svenska Man."

Acrisius, a-krish (&gt;us, [Gr. AKplatof,] a son of Abas,
King of Argos, and the father of Danae, whom he con
fined, it is said, in a brazen tower or other prison, be
cause an oracle had declared that she would bear a son
who should kill her father. He was killed accidentally
by Perseus, the son of Danae by Jupiter. (See DANAE.)

A cron, [Gr. "A.Kpuv,] a celebrated physician of Agri-
gentum, (now Girgenti,) in Sicily, who lived in the fifth
century B.C.

A cron Hel-e m-us, a Roman grammarian, who
wrote a commentary on Horace. The age in which he
lived is unknown.

A-cro m-us or Acron, a-kron , (JAN, or JOHN,) a
Dutch physician, born in 1520. Died at Bale in 1563.

A-crop-o-li ta, [Gr. A^po-oA^c,] (CONSTANTINE,) a
Byzantine writer, lived between 1250 and 1300. He was
a son of George, below noticed.

Acropolita, (GEORGE,) a celebrated Byzantine his
torian, born at Constantinople in 1220. He was highly
esteemed by the emperors Ducas (to whom he was re
lated) and Michael Palaeologus, and held the office of
chancellor (logotheta) at the Byzantine court. 1 le was,
moreover, employed on several important embassies.
His greatest work is a history of the Byzantine Empire
from the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in
1204 down to 1260, when Michael Palnsologus again took
possession of the city. Died in 1282.

See GIBBON, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em
pire," chap. Ixii.

A-crot a-tus, [ A-Kporarof,] King of Sparta, was the
son of Areus, whom he succeeded about 265 B.C. Be
fore his accession he distinguished himself by the de
fence of Sparta against Pyrrhus in 272. After a reign of

a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e,6. same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, diort; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; mocn;

ACS

ADALOALDUS

one year, he was killed in battle against Aristodcmus of j
Megalopolis.

See I l.UTAKCit, "Life of Pyrrhus."

Acs or Aacs, fitch, (MicuAKL,) a Hungarian philos- |
opher, burn at St. .Martin in 1631. Died in 1708.

Acs or Aacs, (MICHAEL,) a theologian, born at Raab :
in 1672, was a son of the preceding. Died in 1711.

Actaeon, ak-tee on, [Gr. kuraiuv ; Fr. ACTION,
ik ta o.N ,] in the Greek mythology, a hunter, who was a ;
son of Aristaaus and Autonoe, a daughter of Cadmus.
He was changed into a stag by Diana and torn to pieces
by his own hounds, because he had seen that goddess
bathing.

Ac-tis a-iies, [Gr. AKnaun/r;,] an ancient king of
Ethiopia, who is said to have conquered Egypt before
the time of the Trojan war.

Ac ton, [Fr. pron. ak tox ,] (JosEi H,) an officer of
Irish descent, born at Besancon, France, in 1737. He
entered the navy of Tuscany, became a captain, and af
terwards passed into the service of the King of Naples.
The favour of the queen, and his own intrigues, procured
his promotion to the office of minister of the marine.
He was prime minister from 178410 1798. His policy-
was implacably hostile to the French. Died about
1810.

See COI.LETTA, " Sloria del Regno di Napoli."

Ac tor, [Gr. "AKTU/),] a son of Deion, (or, as some say,
of Myrmidon,) was the husband of /Egina, and grand
father of Patroclus, who was called Actor ides.

Ac-tu-a rl-US, [ AnTovapiof,] (Jonx,) a Greek physi
cian and medical writer, who nourished about the end
of the thirteenth century.

A-cule-O, (C.uus,) a Roman knight and distin
guished lawyer, who married an aunt of Cicero the
orator.

A-cu me-nus, [ A/imy/trw-,] an Athenian physician,
and friend of Socrates, lived in the fifth century B.C.

Acuiia, de, da a-koon ya, (ANTONIO,) Bishop of Za-
mora, Spain, distinguished for his martial exploits in the
insurrection of Castile in 1520. He was strangled in
prison in 1526.

Acufia, de, (CRISTOVAL,) a Spanish Jesuit, born at
Burgos in 1597, wrote an interesting narrative of the
voyage of exploration of the river Amazon in 1639-41.
His work is entitled " New Discovery of the Great River
of the Amazons," (" Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran
Rio de las Amazonas.") Died about 1680.

Acufia, de, (HERNANDO,) a distinguished Spanish
soldier and poet, born about 1500, was a friend of Gar-
cilasso dc la Vega. His sonnets and eclogues were
much admired. Died in 1580.

Acuiia, de, (Don PEDRO BRAVO,) a Spanish gov
ernor of the Philippine Islands, distinguished as a war
rior and naval commander. His principal exploit was
the rcconquest of the Moluccas from the Dutch in 1606.
He died the same year, at Manilla.

A-cu-si-la/us, [ AKOVOIACIOC;,] a Greek historian, sup
posed to have nourished about 530 B.C.

A da, a Carian princess, who succeeded her husband
on the throne of Caria in 344 B.C. When Alexander
conquered Asia Minor, he appointed her to the satrapy
of Caria.

Ada, 3/dl, a countess of Holland, deprived of her
patrimonial estate by William of Friesland. She is sup
posed to have died about the year 1218.

A da, (Bar-Ahaba or -Ah avah,) a celebrated rabbi,
regarded as the greatest of all the Jewish astronomers,
was born at Babylon, A.D. 183. He is said to have lived
to the age of 170 years.

Adadurof, a-da-doo rof, (BASIL,) a Russian savant,
born at St. Petersburg in 1709, was preceptor to Cathe
rine 1 1. lie wrote some scientific works. Died in 1780.

Adaeus [ Arkwr] or Addaeus, [ AiMmor,] ad-dec us,
a Greek poet, native of Macedonia, flourished, it is sup
posed, about 320 B.C.

A-dair , (JAMES,) a trader and resident among the
Chickasaw and other neighbouring tribes of Indians, pub
lished in 1775 a "History of the American Indians," in
which he endeavours to establish their descent from the
^Israelites.

A-dair , (JAMES,) an eminent English lawyer, and

member of Parliament. He was recorder of London
about 1780, or after that date. Died in 1798.

A-dair , (JAMES MAKIT TRICK,) a Scottish physician,
born in 1728, died in 1802. He spent many years of his
life in the West Indies. Besides a number of medical
essays, he wrote a pamphlet against the abolition of the
slave-trade.

A-dair , (JoiiN,) an American general and senator,
born in South Carolina in 1757. He served in the wars
against the frontier Indians in 1791-2-3, was a senator
in Congress from Kentucky, 1805-6, and in 1814 distin
guished himself in command of the Kentucky troops at
the battle of New Orleans. From 1820 to 1824 he was
Governor of Kentucky, and from 1831 to 1833 a repre
sentative in Congress. Died in 1840.

Adair, (JoiiN,) F.R.S., a noted Scottish hydrog-
rapher, who lived in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. He is the author of a work entitled " De
scription of the Sea-coast and Islands of Scotland, with
Large and Exact Maps for the Use of Seamen."

Adair, (Sir ROBERT,) an able English diplomatist,
born in London in 1763. He entered Parliament about
1802 as a friend of Fox, and was sent on an embassy to
Vienna in 1806. In 1808, although not identified in
politics with the ministry, he was appointed on a special
mission to the Ottoman Porte. Pie w as ambassador at
that court from 1809 until 1811. In 1831 he was sent
by Earl Grey on a special mission to the court of Bel
gium, and in 1835 retired from public service with the
rank of privy counsellor. Died in 1855, aged about 92.

See "Gentleman s Magazine" for Nov. 1855.

Adalard. See ADALHARD.

Adalbero, a-dal-ba ro, or Adalberon, i claTbeh-
r6.\ , Archbishop of Rhcims, flourished in the latter
half of the tenth century. He officiated at the corona
tion of Hugh Capet in 987, and died in 988.

Adalbero, a bishop of Laon in the time of Louis the
last of the Carlovingians, and Hugh Capet.

Ad al-bert, [Fr. pron. i dfl baiR ; Lat. ADALBER -
TUS,] written also Al debert or Aldeber tus, a French
bishop of great popularity, who lived about the middle
of the eighth century. He pretended, it is said, to work
miracles, and to be possessed of all knowledge. He was
deposed from his bishopric for heresy, and imprisoned,
about 775 A. ix

Ad al-bert, [Gen pron. a dal-bCRt ,] an archbishop
of Bremen, born, it is supposed, about 1000 A.I). He
was descended from the emperor Otho II., and became
a favourite of Henry IV. Died in 1072.

Ad al-bert (Adalberto, a-clal-bcr to) I., son of
Boniface, Count of Lucca, assumed the title of Marquis
of Tuscany. His son Adalbert (or Adalberto) II. suc
ceeded him, with the titles of duke and marquis. Died
about 888.

Ad al-bert or Adalber tus, Bishop of Prague, called
the "Apostle of the Prussians," commonly known as
Saint Adalbert, was born in 939. He was killed in 997.

Ad al-bert, an eminent prelate who lived in the time
of Henry V., Emperor of Germany, by whom he was
made Archbishop of Mentz. When Henry was excom
municated by the pope, in 1112, Adalbert was one of the
first to turn against him, and became at length his irre
concilable enemy ; and on his death, in 1 125, had sufficient
influence to prevent his nephew, Frederick of Suabia,
from being elected emperor. He died in 1137.

Adalbert, a dal-bc-Rt , (HEINRICH WILHELM,) a
Prussian prince, cousin-german of Frederick William
IV., born in Berlin in 1811. He entered the army in
his youth, and made a voyage to Brazil, of which he
wrote a narrative : " Passages from my Travelling Diary,"
("Aus meinem Reisetagbuch," 1842.) He obtained com
mand of the Prussian navy about 1850.

Adalbertus. See ADALBERT.

Adalhard, ad a-lard , [Lat. ADALAR DUS,] an abbot
and eminent preacher, allied to the family of Charles
Martel, born about 753. He stood in high favour at the
court of Charlemagne, who employed him on several
important missions. Died in 826.

A-dalo-al dus, a king of the Lombards, son of Agi-
lulfus and Theuclelinda, was born at Mu tina (Mod ena)
about 602 A. i). He is said to have been poisoned by

c as /; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, II, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

ADAM

ADAMI

some of his subjects whom his tyranny had exasper
ated.

Ad am, [Heb. DTX, i.e. "man,"] the first man, (see
Genesis i., ii., and iii.,) is commonly supposed to have
been created a little more than 4000 years before the
Christian era ; though according to the computation of
some writers, his date should be placed much earlier.

Adam, t doN 1 , (ADOLPHE CHARLES,) a popular com
poser, born in Paris in 1803, was a son of Jean Louis,
noticed below. He composed with extreme facility. In
1844 he was chosen a member of the Institute. Among
his works are operas entitled " Le Chalet," (1834,) and
"Le Postilion de Lonjumeau," (1836.) Died in 1856.

Adam, a dam, (ALBRECHT,) a German painter of bat
tles, was born at Nordlingen in 1786. He entered the
service of Eugene, Viceroy of Italy, whom he accom
panied in the Russian campaign of 1812. Among his
works is "The Battle of the Moskwa," (1835.) Died in
1862.

Ad am, (ALEXANDER,) an eminent teacher and gram
marian, born in 1741 in Murrayshire, Scotland. In 1768
he became rector of the Edinburgh high school, which,
under his able management, acquired a reputation al
most unequalled among institutions of its kind. He
published his " Principles of Latin and English Gram
mar" in 1772, and in 1791 his "Roman Antiquities."
Both of these works, until within a few years, have been
extensively used in many schools in the United States
as well as in Great Britain. His " Roman Antiquities,"
(1791,) considered the most creditable of all his works,
immediately established his reputation as a sound and
thorough scholar. In 1794 appeared his "Summary
of Geography and History, both Ancient and Modern,"
which afterwards passed through several editions. Be
sides the foregoing, and a little book entitled " Classical
Biography," he published a compendious Latin dictionary,
(" Lexicon Linguae Latinas Compendiarium,") abridged
from a much larger work, of the same kind, which was
never finished. He died in 1809.

See ALEXANDER HENDERSON", " Life of A. Adam," 1810; CHAM
BERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" and SIR WAL
TER SCOTT S "Autobiography," which contains some interesting par
ticulars illustrating Dr. Adam s character, both as a teacher and as
a man.

Adam, (DANIEL,) a German historian, born at Prague
in 1546. Died in 1599.

Adam, 3 d6N , (FRANgoisGASPARD,) a French sculp
tor, born at Nancy in 1710, was a brother of Lambert
Sigisbert, noticed below. He worked in Paris and Ber
lin. Died in 1759.

Adam, a dam, (GEORG,) a German landscape-painter,
of Nuremberg, born about 1783 ; died in 1823.

Adam, (JACOB,) a German engraver, lived in Vienna
about 1800. He engraved plates for the " Bilder-Bibel"
of Vienna.

Adam, (JACQUES,) a French writer, born at Vendome
in 1663 ; died in 1735. He was one of the translators
of De Thou s Universal History, (16 vols., 1734,) and
was a member of the French Academy.

Ad am, (JAMES,) an architect, was a brother and part
ner of Robert, noticed below. Died in 1794.

Adam, (JEAN Louis,) a French composer and pianist,
born in the department of the Lower Rhine about 1760.
He had great success as professor of music in Paris, and
published a " Methode de Piano," (1802,) which was very-
popular. Died in 1848.

Adam, (JEAN VICTOR,) a French painter and lithog
rapher, born at Paris in 1801. He painted several bat
tle-pieces for the gallery of Versailles, and produced
many lithographs, among which are the " Promenades
and Environs of Paris."

Adam, (LAMBERT SIGISBERT,) a distinguished French
sculptor, born at Nancy in 1 700. When only twenty-three
years of age, he obtained the first prize in the Academy
at Paris. He executed several groups for the roya l
gardens at Versailles and Choisy. In 1744 he was ap
pointed professor in the Royal Academy of Paris. His
works were less remarkable for their conception than
for their finished execution, and are deficient in the sim
plicity of antique art. Died in 1759.

Adam, a dam, (MELCHIOR,) an eminent German
biographer, born in Silesia in the latter part of the six

teenth century, and died in 1622. He wrote the lives of
many eminent men, both Germans and foreigners, who
lived between 1500 and 1618. He was rector of the
College of Heidelberg. One of his works is entitled
" Lives of German Philosophers," (" Vitce Germanorum
Philosophorum," 4 vols., 1615-20.)

Adam, (NICOLAS,) a French grammarian and trans
lator, born in Paris in 1716. Died in 1792.

Adam, (NICOLAS SEBASTIEX,) a younger brother of
Lambert Adam the sculptor, whom he surpassed in all
the higher qualities of the art, was born at Nancy in
1705. His two greatest works are his "Prometheus
Chained," and his " Monument of the Queen of Poland."
He was professor of sculpture in the Academy of Paris.
Died in 1778.

Adam, (ROBERT,) an architect, born at Edinburgh in
1728, and died in 1792. He and his brother James
erected a number of mansions for the nobility, and
public edifices in different parts of England. His style,
though strikingly novel at the time of its introduction, has
the great defect of excessive and minute decoration ; and
his works generally are deficient in unity of composition.

See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Adam, (Rev. ROBERT,) a Scottish writer, born at
Udney about 1770, published "The Religious World
Displayed." Died in 1826.

Adam, (Rev. THOMAS,) born at Leeds in 1701, and
died in 1784. He wrote numerous works of a religious
character, of which his " Private Thoughts on Religion"
(published in 1786) is probably the best-known.

Adam, (Right Hon. WILLIAM,) a British lawyer,
born in Scotland in 1751, was a nephew of Robert Adam
the architect. He was chosen a member of Parliament
in 1774, fought a duel with Charles James Fox in 1779,
and was one of the managers appointed by the Commons
to conduct the impeachment of Warren Hastings in
1788. He was sworn of the privy council in 1815, and pre
sided over the Scottish jury court for the trial of civil
causes from 1816 until his death in 1839. His son John
became Governor-General of India, and died in 1820.
Another son, Charles, obtained the rank of admiral.

See LOCKHART, "Life of Scott."

Adam-Billaut, i dfiV be yo , commonly styled MAI-
TRE ADAM, mSt R S dSN , (i.e. " Master Adam,") a French
poet, and a joiner by trade, sometimes called THE
JOINER OF NEVERS. He was patronized by the great
Concle, and pensioned by Richelieu. Died in 1662.

Adam of Brem eii, [Lat. ADA MUS BREMEN SIS,] an
ecclesiastical author, who flourished in the latter part of
the eleventh century. He wrote a history of the efforts
to extend Christianity from the time of Charlemagne to
that of Henry IV.

Adam de la Halle cler/li-hSl , surnamed LE Bossu
D ARRAS, leh bo sii dS rass , (i.e. "The Hunchback of
Arras,") a French poet of the thirteenth century. He
wrote a piece called " The Play of the Shepherd and
Shepherdess," (" Le Jeu clu Berger et de la Bergere,")
which is regarded as the earliest specimen of the modern
drama.

Adam de Marisco. See ADAMUS MARISCUS.

Adamarmus or Adamanus. See ADOMNAN.

Adamanteo, a-da-man-ta o, an Italian mathemati
cian and Orientalist. Died in 11581.

Adamantius, ad-a-man shc-us, [ ArkjUaimof,] the au
thor of a treatise in Greek on physiognomy, is sup
posed to have lived about the beginning of the fifth cen
tury after Christ.

Adam!, a-da mcc, (ADAM,) a German ecclesiastic,
statesman, and historian, born at Miihlheim about 1600.
He was chosen by the prelates of Wiirtemberg to repre
sent them in the congress which met in 1643 to nego
tiate the peace of Westphalia ; and afterwards wrote an
excellent and impartial history of those negotiations,
"Arcana Pacis Westphalicae," (published in 1698.) Died
in 1663.

Adami, a-cla mee, (ANTONIO FILIPPO,) an Italian
poet and prose-writer, born at Florence about 1720.
Died in 1761.

Adami, (LiONARDO,) an Italian author and excellent
classical scholar, born in Tuscany in 1690. He wrote a
history of ancient Arcadia, (1716.) Died in 1719.

a, e,T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;

ADAMI

ADAMS

Adami, a-da- mee, (TOBIAS,) a writer born in Saxony
in 1581, first introduced the works of Campanella to the
notice of the philosophers of Germany. Died in 1643.

Adami-da-Bolsena, a-da mce da bol-sa na, (AN
DREA,) an Italian musician, born at Rome in 1663, pub
lished a work called " Observations for the Regulation
of the Choir of Singers in the Pontifical Chapel," (" Os
servazioni per ben regolare il Coro clei Canton dellaCa-
pella Pontificia," 171 I.) Died in 1742.

Adamino, a-da-mee no, an Italian sculptor, who lived
in the eleventh century.

Adamnaii or Adamuanus. See ADOMNAN.

Ad ams, (ABIGAIL,) the daughter of the Rev. William
Smith, was born at Weymouth, Massachusetts, in 1744.
She was married in 1764 to John Adams, afterwards
President of the United States, and died in 1818. Her
" Letters" are interesting and valuable for the hints
which they furnish of the manners of her country at
the period in which she lived, and for her original and
graphic notices of European society.

Adams, (AMOS,) an American divine, born in 1727.
He published several sermons, two of which, giving a
" Concise Historical View, etc., of New England," were
republished in London. Died in 1775.

Adams, (CHARLES BAKER,) an American naturalist,
born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1814. He grad
uated at Amherst College, became, in 1838, professor of
chemistry and natural history in Middlebury College,
Vermont, and afterwards of chemistry and zoology at
Amherst. He assisted Professor Hitchcock in his geo
logical survey of New York, and as State geologist was
engaged for several years in a survey of Vermont. He
published "Contributions to Conchology," and other
works. Died in 1853.

Adams, (CHARLES FRANCIS,) an American diplomat
ist, the son of John Quincy Adams, was born in Boston
on the 1 8th of August, 1807. He passed his childhood
mostly in St. Petersburg and London, graduated at
Harvard College in 1825, studied law, and was admitted
to the bar in 1828. He served for five years in the
legislature of Massachusetts. He was nominated at
Buffalo, in August, 1848, for the office of Vice-President
by the convention of Free-Soilcrs which nominated Mar
tin Van Buren for the Presidency.

He published the " Life and Works of John Adams,"
(10 vols., 1850-56.) In 1858 he was elected to Congress
as a Republican by the voters of the third district of
Massachusetts. He was re-elected in 1860, and was ap
pointed minister to England in the spring of 1861. lie
encountered the most bitter social hostility in England,
but he maintained the rights of his country, and acquit
ted himself with credit in the difficult and important
controversies that arose during the great rebellion.
Among the principal subjects of his negotiations was
the damage inflicted on the American mercantile marine
by piratical war-steamers built in England and depend
ing for success on British aid and sympathy.

" No ambassador in recent times," says the " London
Spectator" of Feb. 8, 1868, "has ever had to fill a posi
tion, not merely so delicate and difficult, but so trying
to the equanimity of him who held it through the rapid
and extreme changes of fortune in the State of which he
has been the mouth-piece. . . . Mr. Adams must
have entered on his diplomatic task with a just sense of
soreness, which, but for his great self-command and even
self-forgetfulness, might have resulted after the most
lamentable fashion." He resigned about February, 1868.
" It has been the good fortune of Mr. Adams," says the
" London Illustrated News" of February 15, 1868, "to
have exercised the grandest qualities of true statesman
ship just where and when they were of priceless value,
and to have exercised them with complete success."

Adams, (GEORGE,) an English optician and scientific
writer, distinguished as a maker of mathematical instru
ments and globes. Among his works are a " Treatise on
the Construction and Use of Globes," ( 1 766,) and an " Es
say on the Microscope," (1771.) Died in London, 1786.

His son GEORGE, born about 1750, was also an op
tician. He published an " Essay on Vision," ( 1 789,) and
"Astronomical and Geometrical Essays," (1789, often
reprinted.) Died in 1795.

Adams, (HANNAH,) one of the earliest female writers
of America, born .at Medfield, Massachusetts, in 1755.
She was the author of a "View of Religious Opinions,"
(1784,) " History of New England," (1799,) "Evidences
of Christianity," (1801,) " History of the Jews," (1812,)
and of several other works. She numbered among her
friends the Abbe Gregoire and other distinguished per
sons. Died in 1832.

Adams, (ISAAC,) of Boston, inventor of the Adams
printing-press, was born near the commencement of the
present century. His printing-presses are now in general
use in all parts of the United States, and in the principal
cities have nearly or quite superseded every other.

Adams, (JASPER,) D.D., an American divine, born at
Medway, Massachusetts, in i 793. He graduated at Brown
University in 1815, and soon after became professor of
mathematics in that institution. He was subsequently
president of Charleston College, South Carolina. Died
in 1841.

Adams, (JOHN,) an Englishman, who lived in the
seventeenth century. He published " Index Villaris ; or,
An Alphabetical Table of all the Cities, Market Towns,
Parishes, etc., in England and Wales," (1680,) which has
been pronounced the best work of its kind.

See GOUGH, "British Topography."

Adams, (Joiix,) an eminent preacher, born in Lon
don in 1662, was chaplain to William III. and to Queen
Anne. Lie obtained a prebend at Canterbury, which he
exchanged in 1708 for a stall in the royal chapel at
Windsor. He left a treatise on suicide, and several ser
mons. Died in 1719 or 1720.

Adams, (JOHN,) an American divine and poet, born
in 1704. Died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1740.

Adams, (JoiiN,) an eminent American statesman, the
second President of the United States, was born in
Braintree, Massachusetts, about ten miles from Boston,
on the I gth of October, 1735, O. S. He was the eldest
son of John Adams, a farmer, and Susanna Boylston.
He graduated at Harvard College in 1755, and, while he
was preparing himself for the profession of the law,
taught school at Worcester for two years or more. In
choosing a profession he was at first inclined to be a
minister of the gospel ; but he found he could not assent
to the orthodox creed in the doctrine of election and
reprobation. " His disgust at the doctrines of Calvin
ism," says John Quincy Adams, "was perhaps riveted
by the opinions which he found disseminated in the so
cial circle into which he had been introduced." He.
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1758, and
afterwards resided with his father at Braintree for sev
eral years.

" For the profession of the law," says his grandson,
" John Adams had been pre-eminently gifted with the
endowments of nature ; a sound constitution of body, a
clear and sonorous voice, a quick conception, a discrim
inating judgment, and a ready elocution."

Among the intimate friends of his youth was Jonathan
Sewall, an eloquent lawyer. In 1761 his patriotic zeal
was inflamed by the argument of James Otis (which he
heard) on the subject of writs of assistance. Alluding
to the time and place of that plea, John Adams said,
"American independence was then and there born."
He married, in 1764, Abigail Smith, (a grand-daughter
of Colonel John Quincy,) a woman of excellent char
acter and superior talents. The passage of the stamp act
in 1765 was the occasion of his first active participation
in political affairs. At a meeting of the citizens of I5rain-
tree he offered resolutions or instructions addressed to
the legislature, which were approved, and were adopted
by forty other towns in Massachusetts. He published,
in 1765, an "Essay on Canon and Feudal Law."

The same year, Jeremiah Gridley, James Otis, and John
Adams were employed by the people of Boston as their
counsel to support an important memorial, addressed to
the governor and council, praying that the courts of law,
which had been closed, might be reopened. In order to
induce him to join the Tory party, he was offered in 1763
the place of advocate-general, which he declined. He
removed from Braintree to Boston in 1768, and soon
obtained an extensive practice.

as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

ADAMS

He had now become distinguished as one of the most
prominent and intrepid advocates of the popular cause;
yet he was also disposed to act the part of a moderator
and to counteract the violent excesses of the patriots.
He acted as counsel for the defence in the trial of the
soldiers who, when attacked by a mob in Boston in
March, 1770, had fired and killed several persons. In
this case he firmly resisted the storm of popular excite
ment and the violence of party spirit. He was elected
a member of the general court (i.e. the legislature) in
1 770. " It was not as a politician," says Charles Francis
Adams, " but as a lawyer, that John Adams was first
drawn into public life." He became the chief legal ad
viser of the patriots. The destruction of the tea in the
harbour of Boston, December, 1773, opened the active
drama of the Revolution by a resort to physical force.

Mr. Adams was one of the five delegates sent by Mas
sachusetts to the first continental Congress, which met at
Philadelphia in September, 1774. To his friend Sewall,
who urged him not to engage in the perilous enterprise
of revolution, he replied, " The die is now cast ; I have
passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive
or perish with my country, is my unalterable determina
tion." In Congress he found a fitting arena for the ex
ercise of those great talents, both for business and de
bate, which ultimately raised him to the leadership of
that body. His diary and letters give a graphic account
of the proceedings of that assembly.

During the winter of 1774-75 he wrote, under the sig
nature of Novanglus, a series of able essays in defence of
the rights of the colonists. These first appeared in a
journal of Boston, and may be found in the fourth vol
ume of his collected works. After the battle of Lexing
ton, (April, 1775,) which made many converts to the
cause of independence, he returned to Congress. The
majority of the members, however, were still disposed
to temporize, and adopted another petition to the
king, which Mr. Adams opposed. He was more suc
cessful in his efforts to induce the Congress to provide
for the defence of the colonies. It appears tha* he
was the first to propose George Washington as com-
mandcr-in-chief of the army. He was again elected to
the Federal Congress for one year, and went to Philadel
phia in February, 1776. In a letter dated March 23,

1776, he wrote, "All our misfortunes arise from the re
luctance of the southern colonies to republican govern
ment." He procured, in May, the passage in Congress
of a resolution that the colonies should assume the duty
of self-government. On the 7th of June a resolution
was moved by Richard Henry Lee, and seconded by Mr.
Adams, that these colonies " are and of right ought to
be free and independent States." On the nth of June,
Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin,
Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston were ap
pointed a committee to prepare a declaration of inde
pendence. This measure was opposed by a strong party,
of which John Dickinson was the leader and spokes
man. In reply to him, Mr. Adams made, about July 2, a
memorable speech, in reference to which Jefferson said,
"John Adams was the ablest advocate and champion of
independence on the floor of the house." " He was the
colossus of that Congress. Not graceful, not eloquent,
not always fluent in his public addresses, he yet came out
with a power of thought and expression which moved
his hearers from their seats."

On the 3d of July he wrote to his wife, "The second
day of July,* 1776, will be the most memorable epoch
in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it
will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great
anniversary festival. "

Mr. Adams was the president, or chairman, of the
board of war appointed in June, 1776. He was also
chairman of twenty-five committees in Congress. He
was appointed commissioner to France in November,

1777, and arrived in Paris in April, 1778, to learn that a
treaty between France and the United States had al

ready been concluded. He returned to the United
States in July, 1779, anc ^ m the ensuing autumn served
in the convention which formed a new constitution for
Massachusetts. Before this business was finished, Mr.
Adams was appointed minister to negotiate a treaty of
peace and commerce with Great Britain. He embarked
in November, 1779, but did not reach Paris until Feb
ruary, 1780. Having changed his base of operations tn
Amsterdam, in July, he was authorized in January, 1781,
to act as minister to Holland. The difficulty of his po
sition was increased by the intrigues and duplicity of
the French minister, De Vergennes, who induced Con
gress to revoke Mr. Adams s powers to negotiate a treaty
of commerce. Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens,
who had been appointed joint commissioners, negotiated
with Great Britain a treaty, the preliminary articles of
which were signed November 30, 1782. He was minis
ter at London from May, 1785, until the spring of 1788,
during which period he published a " Defence of the
American Constitutions." When, in 1789, Washington
was inaugurated as President of the United States,
Adams became Vice-President. As an advocate of the
P ederal constitution he was identified with the Federal
ist party, by which he was again elected Vice-President
in 1792. In the first Congress he gave no less than
twenty casting votes, all on points of importance in the
organic laws, and thus rendered an efficient support to
the policy of Washington. When the French Revolu
tion divided the Americans into two parties, Mr. Adams
joined the Anti-Gallican party.

In 1796, John Adams and Thomas Pinckney were
nominated by the Federalists for the offices of President
and Vice-President. The Republican candidate for the
Presidency was Thomas Jefferson. Mr. Adams wrote
to his wife, under date of January 20, 1796, " I am heir-ap
parent, you know, and a succession is soon to take place."
His friends assert that General Hamilton, who was the
favourite leader of the Federal party, used his influence
to elect Pinckney to the Presidency. The result of the
canvass was that Adams received seventy-one electoral
votes and became President, while Jefferson received
sixty-eight votes and became Vice-President. As Pres
ident, Adams retained the cabinet ministers appointed by
Washington, viz., Timothy Pickering, Oliver Wolcott,
James Mctlenry, Joseph Habersham, and Charles Lee.
With the first two of these secretaries, however, he had
no cordial relations. In the war between France and Eng
land he maintained neutrality ; but the French Directory
provoked the enmity of the Americans by the violation of
their maritime rights, and by the expulsion of the envoys,
Marshall and Pinckney, from France. In 1798 the gov
ernment of the United .States organized a new army, of
which General Washington was appointed commander-
in-chief. For the post of second in command Wash
ington preferred Hamilton, whom the President regard
ed with ill will or distrust ; but the general-in-chief pro
cured the appointment of Hamilton by a " menace of
resignation." In February, 1799, without consulting his
cabinet, Adams nominated a Mr. Van Murray as minister
to the French Republic. This act, which Charles Francis
Adams says was " the most noted event of Mr. Adams s
administration," gave great offence to many of his own
party, although the result, by averting a war with France,
was probably advantageous to the country. His unpop
ularity was increased by the alien and sedition laws, the
latter of which made the mere expression of opinions or
public men and measures a penal offence. In May, 1800,
he removed Mr. Pickering from the office of secretary of
state, and appointed John Marshall in his stead.

In the presidential election of 1800 he was again the
Federal candidate, and received sixty-five electoral votes,
but was defeated by Thomas Jefferson, who received
seventy-three votes. In March, 1801, he retired from
public life, and sank into neglect, covered with obloquy
by both of the great political parties. A reaction of
public sentiment, however, gradually took place in his
favour, and his faults which, indeed, were of a kind to
impair his popularity rather than his usefulness were
almost lost sight of, after he had withdrawn from political
life, in the remembrance of his many and inestimable
public services.

a, e, T, 5, u, y, lon^; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon :

* The day on which the resolution in favour of independence was
passed: the Declaration of Independence, with its various amend
ments, was not agreed to until the 4th, and then only after a Ion" and
vehement debate.

He began to write an Autobiography, which he never
finished Having lived to see his son, John Quincy,
elected President of the United States, he died at Quin
cy on the 4th of July, 1826. By a remarkable coinci
dence, Thomas Jefferson died on the same day. The
character of John Adams as drawn by Jefferson before
these distinguished men had become rivals for the suf
frages of the American people, is probably very near the
truth. lie says, writing from Paris, "A seven months
intimacy with him here, and as many weeks in London,
have given me opportunities of studying him closely.
He is vain, irritable, and a bad calculator of the force
and probable effect of the motives which govern men
This is all the ill which can possibly be said of him. He
is profound in his views and accurate in his judgment,
except where knowledge of the world is necessary to
form a judgment." Letter to Madison, dated January 30,
1787.

United States;" "Quarterly Review" for December, 1841; "New
York Review" for January, 1842 ; " North American Review" for
October, 1850; JARED SPARKS, " Diplomatic Correspondence of the
American Revolution."

Adams, (JoiiN,) a British sailor, was one of the mu
tinous crew of the "Bounty," who, in 1789, sent their
commander, Bligh, adrift in a boat, and established them
selves in Pitcairn s Island. After some of his comrades
had been killed by the natives, he became religious,
trained his children in habits of strict morality, and was
regarded as the patriarch of the colony. His proper
name is said to have been Alexander Smith. Died in
1829. An account of this colony was published in a
" Voyage to the Pacific," etc., by Captain Beechey, who
visited it in 1825 ; also by Rev. E. Murray, (1853.) Lord
Byron has made the history of this colony the subject
ot a poem in four cantos, entitled " The Island."

See, also, SIR JOHN BARROW, " History of the Mutiny of the
Bounty."

Adams, (Joiix Coucu,) an eminent English astron
omer, born in Cornwall about 1817, was educated at
Cambridge. He shares with Leverrier the honour of the
discovery of the planet Neptune, although he was anti
cipated by that astronomer in the publication of the dis
covery. He began his researches into the causes of the
irregularities in the motion of Uranus as early as 1843,
and communicated the results to Professor Airy in 1845.
In November, 1846, he made public his "Explanation
of the Observed Irregularities in the Motion of Uranus."
He received the Copley medal in 1848, was chosen a
fellow of the Royal Society in 1849, and President of the
Astronomical Society in 1851. lie was appointed pro
fessor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1858.

Adams, (JOHN Quixcv,) an American statesman,
orator, and diplomatist, the sixth President of the United
States, was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, on the i ith
of July, 1767. He was the eldest son of President John
Adams, above noticed. He enjoyed peculiar and rare
advantages for education. In childhood he was instruct
ed by his mother, a grand-daughter of Colonel John
Quincy, and a woman of superior talents. In 1778,
when only eleven years old, he accompanied his father
to France, attended a school in Paris, and returned
home in August, 1779. Having been taken again to
Europe by his father in 1780, he pursued his studies at
the University of Leyden, where he learned Latin and
Greek. In July, 1781, at the age of fourteen, he was ap
pointed private secretary to Francis Dana, minister to
Russia. He remained at St. Petersburg until October,
1782, after which he resumed his studies at the Hague,
and was present at the signing of the definitive treaty of
peace in Paris, September 3, 1783. Having passed some
months with his father in London, he returned to the
United States to complete his education, entered Har
vard College in 1786, and graduated in 1788.

He studied law with the celebrated Thcophilus Par
sons, of Newburyport, was admitted to the bar in 1791,
and began to practise in Boston. In 1791 he published
in the " Boston Centinel," under the signature of /W&gt;//-
cola, a series of able essays, in which he exposed the fal
lacies and vagaries of the French political reformers.

These papers attracted much attention in Europe as
well as in the United States.

Under the signature of Marccllus he wrote, in 1793,
several articles, in which he argued that the United
States should observe strict neutrality in the war between
the French and the British. " To him," says Mr. Sew-
ard, " it is believed, belongs the honour of first publicly
advocating this line of policy, which afterwards became
a settled principle of the American government." These
writings having commended him to the favour of Gen
eral Washington, he was appointed minister to Holland
in May, 1794. He married, in July, 1797, Louisa Cath
erine Johnson, a daughter of Joshua Johnson, of Mary
land, who was then American consul at London. In a
letter dated February 20, 1797, Washington wrote to the
elder Adams, " I give it as my decided opinion that
Mr. Adams is the most valuable public character we
have abroad," and he advised the President-elect not to
withhold promotion from him because he was his son.
John Quincy Adams was accordingly appointed minister
to Berlin, in 1797. He translated Wieland s " Oberon"
into English, and published an account of his travels in
Silesia, which he visited in 1800. He succeeded in ne
gotiating a treaty of amity and commerce with the Prus
sian government, and was recalled about February, 1801.
He was elected a senator of the United States by the
Federalists of Massachusetts, for the term beginning
March, 1803. In 1805 he was appointed professor of
rhetoric and belles-lettres at Harvard College, and ac
cepted that office on condition that he should be permit
ted to attend to his senatorial duties while Congress was
in session. His lectures at Harvard were much ad
mired, and were published in 1810. In 1805 he endeav
oured to procure the passage of a law to levy a duty on
the importation of slaves. He offended his political
friends, the Federalists, by supporting Jefferson s em
bargo act, which was passed in December, 1807, and
thus became connected with the Democratic party. The
legislature of Massachusetts elected another person to
take the place of Mr. Adams, who resigned his seat in
March, 1808, declining to serve for the remainder of the
term, rather than obey the instructions of the Federalists,
who were then the dominant party in his State. He sub
sequently gave far deeper offence by charging some of the
Federal leaders with a plot to dissolve the Union and
establish an independent northern confederacy. This
accusation was doubtless one of the principal causes of
the hostility and distrust which were long felt towards
New England, not only in the Southern, but also in the
Middle and Western States.

While a member of the Senate, Mr. Adams had dis
tinguished himself as an able and eloquent public speak
er, as well as an accomplished scholar. In March, 1809,
he was appointed by President Madison minister to
Russia. During his residence in that country he was
nominated an associate justice of the supreme court of
the United States, and confirmed February, 1811; but
he declined the appointment. His influence and diplo
matic services at St. Petersburg laid the foundation of
those amicable relations which have ever since been
maintained between Russia and the United States. In
1813, Adams, Clay, Gallatin, and Russell were appointed
commissioners to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great
Britain. They met the British diplomatists at Ghent,
and, after a protracted negotiation of six months, signed
a treaty of peace on the 241)1 of December, 1814.

In the spring of 1815, Adams was appointed minister to
the court of St. James, where he remained until he was
selected by Mr. Monroe for the office of secretary of state
in 1817. In his long and successful career as a diplomat
ist he had justified the confidence of Washington, who,
in 1797, had predicted that Mr. Adams would "prove
himself to be the ablest of all our diplomatic corps."
He entered upon his duties as secretary of state in Sep
tember, . 817, and performed them with a fidelity and
uccess which obtained the approbation of the country.
He defended General Jackson s conduct in Florida, when
the other members of the cabinet censured him for tran-
cending his orders.

According to Mr. Seward, " Mr. Adams deserved
and received a high share of credit" for negotiating, in

e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( ^JT^See Explanations, p. 23.)

ADAMS

1819, with Spain, a treaty which was very advantageous
to the United States.

In 1824, Adams, Jackson, Crawford, and Clay were
candidates for the Presidency ; all Democrats, and pro
fessing substantially the same political creed. Mr.
Adams, who was supported by the Eastern States and
New York, received eighty-four electoral votes ; General
Jackson, ninety-nine ; Mr. Crawford, forty-one ; and Mr.
Clay, thirty-seven. Neither of the candidates having
received a majority in the electoral colleges, the election
devolved on the House of Representatives. Aided by the
influence of Henry Clay, Mr. Adams received the votes
of thirteen States, and was elected.

He appointed Mr. Clay secretary of state, Richard
Rush secretary of the treasury, James Barbour secretary
of war, Samuel L. Southard secretary of the navy, and
William Wirt attorney-general. The friends of Jack
son were indignant, and accused Adams and Clay of
obtaining their success by "bargain and corruption."
Athough Mr. Crawford wrote to Mr. Clay, after the elec
tion, " I approved of your vote when it was given, and
should have voted as you did between Jackson and
Adams," yet the friends of Crawford formed a coalition
with the Jacksonians to oppose the new administration.
Mr. Adams favoured internal improvements, and the
protection of domestic manufactures. It ought to be
remembered to his honour that he refused to remove
competent men from office merely because they were
his political opponents. In the latter part of his Pres
idential term the opposition had a majority in both
houses of Congress, and assailed the President with un
scrupulous and bitter hostility. At the election of 1828
he received eighty-three electoral votes, and was defeated
by General Jackson, who received one hundred and
seventy-eight votes. His defeat was probably promoted
by the charge of corrupt collusion with Mr. Clay in 1825,
although that charge appears to have been wholly des
titute of foundation. On the 4th of March, 1829, he
retired to his estate at Quincy.

In 1830 the public were greatly surprised by the elec
tion of Mr. Adams to Congress, in which he took his
seat in December, 1831. He continued to represent his
native district in that body for seventeen years, during
which he was constantly at his post, and surpassed
nearly all the members in close application to business
and in the power of endurance. " In every respect,"
says Sevvard, " he was a model legislator." He usually
acted with the Whigs, but kept himself free from the
trammels of party. His most memorable service in Con
gress was his defence of the right of petition, and his
inflexible resistance to the encroachments of the slave
power. In 1836 the opponents of slavery began to send
to Congress petitions for the abolition of slavery, which
were presented by Mr. Adams. The House of Repre
sentatives adopted a rule that no petition relating to
slavery should be read, printed, or debated. " With un
wavering firmness," says Seward, " against a bitter and
unscrupulous opposition, exasperated to the highest
pitch by his pertinacity amidst a perfect tempest of
vituperation and abuse he persevered in presenting
these petitions, one by one, to the amount sometimes
of two hundred in a. day demanding the action of the
house on each separate petition." His opponents once
made a motion to punish him by a vote of censure for
presenting a petition from slaves ; but they were baffled
in their object when the fact was announced that the
said petitioners prayed that slavery should NOT be abol
ished.

On the 2ist of February, 1848, while in his seat in
the Capitol, he was struck with paralysis. He died on
the 230! of that month ; his last words were, " This is
the last of earth ! I AM CONTENT !"

In the latter part of his career he was popularly known
by the title of "the Old Man Eloquent." He kept a
copious diary of his public life, and was a voluminous
writer of prose and verse. Many of his orations, poems,
and discourses have been published. In religion he
was, like his father, a Unitarian.

Second Series.)

Adams, (JOSEPH,) a physician and medical writer,
born in 1756. He practised in London from 1805 till
his death in 1818. His principal work is entitled
" Observations on Morbid Poisons," (1796.) He was an
enthusiastic admirer of Hunter, and appears to have
adopted, too implicitly, most of the views of that emi
nent physiologist.

Adams, (NEIIEMIAH,) D.D., an American divine, born
at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1806. He graduated at
Harvard University in 1826. For many years he has been
pastor of the Essex Street Congregational Church, Bos
ton. Among his various publications may be men
tioned " Remarks on the Unitarian Belief; " " Friends of
Christ in the New Testament ;" " Life of John Eliot;" and
"South Side View of Slavery," (1854,) which has been
severely criticised by the free-soil press of the country.

Adams, (RiCHARD,) an English non-conformist minis
ter, born in Cheshire, graduated in 1644. He was eject
ed from a living in Bread street, London, in 1662. Died
near the close of the seventeenth century.

Adams, (SAMUEL,) an eminent American patriot and
orator, born in Boston on the 27th of September, 1722,
was a second-cousin of President John Adams. He
graduated at Harvard College in 1740. A few years af
terwards, on taking the degree of master of arts, he chose
for his thesis the question, " Whether it be lawful to re
sist the supreme magistrate if the commonwealth can
not otherwise be preserved ?" of which he maintained
the affirmative. In early life he applied himself to mer
cantile business, in which he was not successful. He af
terwards served as collector of taxes in Boston. Having
gained distinction as a political writer, he was elected a
member of the general assembly of Massachusetts in
1765. He continued to represent Boston in that assem
bly for nine years, and by his courage, talents, and energy
acquired great influence. Before the Revolution he was
a zealous opponent of the policy of the British ministers,
and an advocate of independence. John Adams, in his
diary, written in 1765, after some notice of James Otis
and others, says, "Adams, I believe, has the most thor
ough understanding of liberty and her resources in the
temper and character of the people, though not in the
law and constitution, as well as the most habitual radi
cal love of it, of any of them."

He was elected a member of the continental Congress
in 1774, and was one of the two popular leaders excepted
from the general pardon offered by-the British govern
ment in June, 1775. As a member of Congress, in which
he continued about eight years, he rendered important
services, and signed the Declaration of Independence.
Mr. Adams took part in the formation of the constitution
of Massachusetts, adopted in 1780, served afterwards as
a senator of that State, and was a member of the con
vention which ratified the Federal constitution in 1788.
In national politics he favoured the Republican or Jef-
fersonian party. He was lieutenant-governor from 1789
to 1794, and in 1795 succeeded John Hancock as Gov
ernor of Massachusetts. Having been several times re-
elected, he served as Governor until 1797, and then re
tired from public life. He had married young, and had
an only son, whom he survived. In religion he was 3
strict Calvinist. An oration on the independence of his
country, which he delivered i i Philadelphia in August,
1776, has been published. He died in Boston, on the
2cl of October, 1803. Respecting his merits as a speaker
and writer, John Adams remarks that in his works may
be found "specimens of a nervous simplicity of reasoning
and eloquence that have never been rivalled in America."

See " Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams," bv WII.I.I.AM
V. WKT.LS, 3 vols. 8vo, Kostpn, 1865: see also the "Encyclopaedia
Americana; GOODRICH, "Lives of (lie Signers to the Declaration
of Independence:" SANDEKSON, "Biography of the Signers to the
Declaration of Independence ;" BANCROFT, "History of the United
Stales," vol. v. chaps, x. and xix.; HILDRETH, "History of the
United States," vol. ii.

Adams, (Sir THOMAS,) an English rovalist, noted for
munificence, born in Shropshire in 1586. He was lord
mayor of London in 1645. Died in 1667.

Adams, (THOMAS,) an English dissenting minister,
who was rejected for non-conformity about 1662. He
wrote a work called "Protestant Union." Died in 1670.

Adams, (WILLIAM), an English navigator, born in

a, e, T, o, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fatj,met; not; good; moon;

ADAMS

ADD IS ON

Kent about 1575. He entered the Dutch navy as pilot,
and passed some time in Japan, where he is said to have
rendered important services to the commerce of the
Dutch and English. Died in 1621.

Adams, (Rev. WILLIAM,) distinguished as the friend
of Dr. Johnson, was born in 1707, and died in 1789.
Besides some smaller pieces, he published "An Answer
to Mr. Hume s Essay on Miracles," (1752,) which at
tracted considerable attention.

Adams, (WILLIAM,) an English divine and writer,
born in 1814. He held the position of vicar of St. Peters,
Oxford. Among his works are " The Shadow of the
Cross," (1842, 8th edition, 1849,) and "Distant Hills,"
(4th edition, 1847.) Died in 1848.

Ad am-son, (HKNRY,) a Scottish poet, who lived in
the early part ot the seventeenth century. He was a
nephew of Archbishop Adamson. Died in 1639.

See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots
men."

Adamson, (JOHN,) an English author, born in 1787.
He published a "Memoir of Camoens," (1820,) and
" History, Antiquities, and Literature of Portugal," (2
vols., 1842-46.) Died in 1855.

Adamson, (PATRICK,) an eminent Scottish prelate
and writer, born at Perth in 1536. He embraced the
cause of the Reformation on its gaining the ascendency,
and in 1564 published a poem "On the Superstitious
Follies of the Papists," (" De Papistarum Superstitiosis
Ineptiis.") In 1576, through the influence of Morton,
the regent, he was raised to the archbishopric of St. An
drews. From this time to the end of his life he was en
gaged in an almost incessant struggle with the Presby
terian party, who were growing every day more powerful,
and who at last succeeded in deposing him, not only
from the primacy, but from all his functions as a minis
ter. He died in 1592, in great indigence. Besides the
poem already mentioned, he wrote translations of the
book of Job, of the Apocalypse, and other parts of the
Bible, in Latin verse.

See CALDKRWOOO, " History of the Church of Scotland ;" CHAM
BERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" SPOTTS-
WOOD, " History of the Church of Scotland."

A-da mus Ma-ris cus or Ad am de Maris co, a

learned monk, and teacher of theology at Oxford, born
about the end of the twelfth century. Roger Bacon,
who was his contemporary, speaks of him as an eminent
mathematician. He died about 1260.

A-da mus Mu-re-mu-then sis (or Murimtitheii-
sis) or Adam de Murimuth, Murimouth, or Mu-
rymouth, an English chronicler, who wrote a " Chron
icle or History of his Own Time," extending from 1303
to J 337- He appears to have been employed on several
important missions ; in 1323 he was ambassador from Ed
ward II. (of England) to the pope and the King of Sicily.

Ada mus Sco tus, (i.e. "Adam the Scotchman,") a
learned bishop, who lived in the twelfth century, chiefly
remarkable as the author of a curious dialogue between
the Soul and Reason. Of the events of his life little or
nothing is known.

Adanson, S doN soN , (MiciiEL,) an eminent French
naturalist, born at Aix in 1727. His family were of
Scottish extraction, and had been exiled from their
country on account of their devotion to the house of
Stuart. He was distinguished at school for his great
application, and won many of the prizes while at the
College of Plessis. In 1748 he visited Senegal, in Africa,
where he remained five years, and in spite of burning
suns and drenching rains he collected, by unremitting
labour, an immense number of new plants and animals,
as well as objects of commerce, clothes, utensils, and
implements of war peculiar to the inhabitants; made
exact maps of the countries through which he travelled ;
prepared grammars and vocabularies of the different
nations of that region, and kept an exact register of me
teorological observations. After his return to France,
he published, in 1757, his " Natural History of Senegal,"
(" Histoire Naturclle du Senegal,") and, in 1763, his
"Families of Plants," (" F.uviHe:; des Plantes.") In
these, and all his other works, he strenuously opposed
the artificial system of Linnaeus ; but the influence and
popularity of the Swedish naturalist were so great as

not only to resist uninjured all the efforts of his talented
and powerful assailant, but to throw for a time even
Adanson s extraordinary merits into the shade. Though
on the publication of the " Natural History of Senegal" he
was elected member of the Royal Academy of Sciences
of Paris, and fellow of the Royal Society of London, yet
he passed a considerable portion of his after-life in ob
scurity and extreme indigence ; but he was finally main
tained by a pension from the French government. He-
died in 1806. In addition to the works already men
tioned, Adanson contributed many valuable papers to
the Memoires of the Royal Academy of Sciences ; and
also prepared an immense work entitled " Universal Or
der of Nature," ("Ordre Universel de la Nature,") a
sort of encyclopaedia of natural science, which has never
been published. He read, in 1761, before the Academy
of Sciences, a very interesting notice (accompanied by
an accurate botanical description) of the baobab-tree,
which was afterwards named, in honour of the illustrious
botanist, Adansonia. As a naturalist, Adanson is not
unworthy to be the rival of Linnaeus ; in the estimation
of Cuvier, indeed, he ought to rank far above the illus
trious Swede. His eulogy was composed by Cuvier,
who represents his character as noble, but eccentric.

See CUVIER, " Eloge d Adanson," 1819; LEJOYAND, " Notice sui
la Vie et lesTravaux de M. Adanson," 8vo, 1808; "Observations sur
feu M. Adanson," by his nephew, M. ADANSON ; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."

Adashef, a-da-shef, or Adashev, written also Ada-
schew, (ALEXIS,) an eminent Russian statesman, who
was the minister and favourite of Ivan IV. from 1547 to
1560. His administration was distinguished for its jus
tice, humanity, and enlightened policy. Having incurred
the displeasure of his sovereign, he died, in prison, at
Dorpat, in 1561.

See K.ARAMZIX, "History of the Russian Empire."

Adashef or Adashev, (DANIEL,) a brother of the
preceding, greatly distinguished himself by a successful
expedition which he commanded against the Crim Tar
tars in 1559. Two years after, he was beheaded by the
order of his capricious and ungrateful sovereign.

Addemeeree or Addemiri, ad-deh-mee ree, writ
ten also Al-Damiri, surnamed KEMAL-ED-DHEN, (or
-ED-Df N,) ke-mal ed-deen , (" Perfection of the Faith,")
a distinguished Arabian naturalist, born in Egypt about
1350. He wrote on history and biography as well as
natural science. The best-known of his works is " The
Lives of Living Creatures." Died about 1405.

Ad diiig-toii, (ANTHONY,) an English physician, who
was the confidential friend and adviser of Lord Chat
ham, was educated at Oxford, where he took the degree
of master of arts in 1 740, and that of doctor of medicine
in 1744. He practised at Reading, and died in 1790.

Addington, (HENRY,) afterwards LORD SIDMOUTH,
son of the preceding, was born in 1756, and educated
with Pitt, the son of Lord Chatham. He soon distin
guished himself in the political world; in 1789 he was
chosen speaker of the House of Commons, and in 1801,
on the resignation of Pitt, to whom he had ever shown
himself an unfaltering frierp, he succeeded that great
statesman as chancellor of the exchequer and first lord
of the treasury. The opposition of his enemies obliged
him to leave his station in May, 1804: the king then
conferred upon him the title of Lord Viscount Sidmouth.
He became home secretary in 1812, and retired from
public life in 1822. Died in 1844.

See " Life and Correspondence of the Hon. Henry Addington,"

by PELLEW, 1847.

Addington, (STEPHEN,) D.D., a dissenting minister,
born at Northampton, England, about 1730, and died in
1796. He wrote, besides other religious works, a life of
the Apostle Paul.

See WILSON S "Dissenting Churches."

Ad di-son, (ALEXANDER,) an American lawyer and
judge, distinguished for his learning and eloquence, was
born in 1759. Died at Pittsburg in 1807.

Ad dison, (G. H.,) an Englishman, born in 1793; wa - s
a youth of high promise when he died, in India, in 1815,
leaving a work called " Indian Reminiscences," (1837.)

Addison, (JOSEPH,) an English author, pre-eminent
as an essayist, humorist, and moralist, was born at Mil-

c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, ^ guttural; N, nnsal; K, frilled; s as z; th as in this. OJ^See Explanations, p. 23.)

ADD IS ON

ston, rtar Amcsbury, in Wiltshire, on the 1st of May,
1672 He was a son of the Rev. Lancelot Addison.
He attended school at the Charter House, from which,
about the age of fifteen, he passed to Queen s College,
Oxford, with a stock of classical learning that would have
done honour to a master of arts. In 1689 he removed
to Magdalen College, where he remained about ten years.
He acquired at college a high reputation as a writer of
Latin verse, in which he probably excelled all his con
temporaries. His first English composition was a piece
of complimentary verse addressed, in 1694, to Dryden,
who appears to have been pleased with this tribute, and
became a friend of the author. Addison wrote the crit
ical preface which Dryden prefixed to his version of the
"Georgics," (1697.)

His friends destined him for the church, to which his
opinions and Habits of thought were well adapted. Be
fore he had decided in relation to the choice of a profes
sion, he formed an acquaintance with Charles Montagu,
the eminent Whig financier, to whom he dedicated an
elegant Latin poem on the peace of Ryswick, (1697.) He
was persuaded by Montagu to decline the clerical pro
fession and to devote himself to the service of the state.
The course of his life was determined in 1699, when he
received an annual pension of ^300, and set out on a
tour to France and Italy, partly with the design to qualify
himself for diplomacy by the study of the French lan
guage. At Paris he met with Boileau, who complimented
him highly on his Latin poetry. He passed many months
in the chief cities of Italy, and addressed to his friend
Montagu, now Lord Halifax, a " Letter from Italy," in
verse, (1701,) which was greatly admired. In conse
quence of the death of King William and the removal of
his Whig friends from office, Addison was deprived of
his pension in 1702. He returned to England about the
end of 1703.

One morning he was surprised to receive, in, the garret
which he occupied in the Haymarket, a visit from Mr.
Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer, who, on behalf of
the chief minister, Godolphin, requested him to write a
poem on the battle of Blenheim, (1704.) The result of
this visit was "The Campaign," which was received
with immense applause by the public, and procured for
the author a commissionership as an earnest of greater
favours. .He published an interesting "Narrative of his
Travels in Italy," which, before it was reprinted, sold
for five times the original price. His next work was the
opera " Rosamond ;" which failed on the stage through
the fault of the music, but was completely successful as
a publication.

In 1705 Addison was appointed under-secretary of
state, through the influence of Halifax and Somers, who
had formed a coalition with Godolphin and Marlborough.
He was elected to Parliament in 1708, and on one occa
sion rose to speak, but could not overcome his diffidence,
and made no further effort to become a debater. His
literary talents and character, however, rendered him
one of the main pillars of the Whig party, for at that time
public opinion was influence! more by the pen than by the
tongue. " When these thrags are duly considered," says
Macaulay, " it will not be thought strange that Addison
should have climbed higher in the state than any other
Englishman has ever, by means merely of literary talents,
been able to climb."

He was chief secretary to Lord Wharton, Lord-Lieuten
ant of Ireland, in 1 709, with a salary of about 2000. In
this year his friend Steele began to issue "The Tatler,"
which afforded to Addison an opportunity to display his
genius in a new department of literature. His graceful
style, his genial spirit, his excellent invention and inimi
table humour rendered The Tatler, and its successor
" The Spectator," extremely popular. The Spectator
was issued daily from March i, 1711, until December 6,
1712, and was revived in 1714 as a tri-weekly paper.
Addison wrote about three-sevenths of The Spectator,
the success of which was such as no similar work has
ever obtained. The circulation of it amounted to nearly
four thousand copies. For some particular papers, it is
said, the demand was so great that not less than twenty
thousand copies were required. These essays exerted
a great and salutary influence on society. " He not only

made the proper use of wit himself," says Dr. Johnson,
" but taught it to others. . . . He has dissipated the
prejudice that had long connected gaiety with vice, and
easiness of manners with laxity of principles. He has
restored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence not
to be ashamed. This is an elevation of literary charac
ter, above all Greek, above all Roman fame, " Although
the Whigs were defeated in the general election of 1710,
Addison was so popular that he was returned to Parlia
ment without a contest. On this occasion Swift writes,
" I believe if he had a mind to be king, he would hardly
be refused."

In 1713 he produced his tragedy of " Cato," which
was greeted with "thunders of unanimous applause,"
and obtained more celebrity among his contemporaries
than any other of his works ; but this favourable esti
mate has not been confirmed by the suffrages of a later
age. On the death of Queen Anne, August, 1714, lie
was appointed secretary to the regency or lords justices.
Soon after that date he again became chief secretary to
the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. He exchanged this office
for a seat at the board of trade in 1715, and began to pub
lish "The Freeholder," his best political work. After a
long courtship, he married, in 1716, the Countess-dow
ager of Warwick, who, according to Johnson, "thought
herself entitled to treat with very little ceremony the
tutor of her son." He became one of the two principal
secretaries of state in the new ministry formed in the
spring of 1717, but remained in office only eleven months.
His retirement is attributed to ill health and incfficienc)
as a public speaker.

He died on the I7th of June, 1719, leaving no child
but a daughter, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Shortly before his death he said to his step-son, Lord
Warwick, " I have sent for you in order that you might
see in what peace a Christian can die !"

The two gravest faults charged against him are his
habit of drinking wine, and his insidious enmity to Pope.
The former has, in all probability, been much exagger
ated, and the latter is said to have been fully and dis
tinctly disproved. It appears, indeed, to have never had
any better foundation than Pope s morbid suspicion.
(See POPE, ALEXANDER.)

Addison s colloquial powers are extolled by several
authors. Lady Mary Montagu said thai: " she had known
all the wits, and that Addison was the best company in
the world." "Addison s conversation," says Pope, "had
something in it more charming than I have found in any
other man. But this was only when familiar : before
! strangers, or perhaps a single stranger, he preserved his
dignity by a stiff silence." " His humanity," says Mac-
I aulay, " is without a parallel in literary history. The
I highest proof of human virtue is to possess boundless
power without abasing it. No kind of power is more
formidable than the power of making men ridiculous ;
and that power Addison possessed in boundless meas
ure. But it would be difficult, if not impossible, to find,
in all the volumes which he has left us, a single taunt
which can be called ungenerous or unkind. . . . The
numerous fictions, generally original, often wild and
grotesque, but always graceful and happy, which are
found in his essays, fully entitle him to the rank of a
great poet, a rank to which his metrical compositions
give him no claim. As an observer of life, of manners,
of all the shades of human character, he stands in the
first class."

See JOHNSON, "Lives of the English Poets;" MACAUI.AY,
"Essays," article Addison; STEELE, " Memoirs of the Lite and
Writings of J. Addison," 1724; DES MAIZEAUX, "Viede J. Addi
son;" LucvAiKiN, " Life of Joseph Addison," 1843; EUVIN, "Life
of Addison," 1857; "Biograpliia Britannica;" VILI.EMAIN, "Coursde
Literature."

Addison, (Rev. LANCELOT,) father of the preceding,
was born in Westmoreland in 1632, and educated at
Queen s College, Oxford. He passed seven years at Tan
gier as chaplain to the garrison, and, after his return,
published " West Barbary, or a Short Narrative of the
Revolutions of the Kingdoms of Fez and Morocco,"
(1671,) which attracted considerable attention both in
England and foreign countries. He became a royal
chaplain about 1670, Dean of Lichfield in 1683, and Arch
deacon of Coventry in 1684. Among his writings are

a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obsairc; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;

ADEL

JDENEZ

several religious treatises, and a work on "The Present
State of the Jews, (more particularly relating to those in
Barbary,") (1675.) He died in 1703, leaving three sons :
Joseph ; Gulston, who died Governor of Madras ; and
Lancelot, who was eminent as a classical scholar.

See WOOD, "Athena: Oxonienses."

Adel, a dcl, or Adils, a dils, one of the early kings
of Sweden, whose history is lost in fable. He is sup
posed to have lived in the fifth or sixth century.

Adelaar. See ADELER.

Adelaide, ad el-ad, [Gcr. ADF.LHEID, a del-hlt ,] an
empress of Germany, daughter of Rudolph II., and wite
of Otho I., (surnamed the Great,) was born in 931. Alter
the death of the emperor, her husband, she governed the
empire with great ability during the early part of the
reign of her son, Otho II. She was afterwards regent
during a part of the minority of Otho III. She died in
999, universally beloved, and is regarded as a saint,
though her name does not appear in the Roman cal
endar.

Adelaide, ad e-lad, [Fr. ADELAIDE, t da lt ed ,] (MA
DAME,) the eldest daughter of Louis XV., was born, in
1732, at Versailles. On the breaking out of the revolu
tion, she, with her sister, Madame Victoire, left their
native country for Italy. She died at Trieste in 1800.

Adelaide, ad e-lad, Queen of England, born in 1792,
was a daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, and was
married, in 1818, to the Duke of Clarence, who became
William IV. Died in 1849.

See DOKAN, "Life of Queen Adelaide."

Adelaide, t da ls ed , (EUGENE LOUISE,) a French
princess, born in Paris in 1777, was a sister of King Louis
Philippe. She was an exile from 1792 until 1814. In
1830 she urged Louis Philippe, with whom she had
much influence, to accept the crown. Died in 1847.

Adelais (id hVor S deh-li ) OF LOUVAIN, the daugh
ter of Godfrey, Duke of Brabant, and the second queen
of Henry I. of England, was born about 1103, and mar
ried in 1 121. Her beauty was celebrated under the des
ignation of " The Fair Maid of Brabant." After the
death of Henry I. she married William de Albini, an
English nobleman, and died in 1151.

Ad el-ard or Athelard, a king of the West Saxons,
who ascended the throne in 727, and died in 740.

Adelard OF BATH, [Lat. ADELAR DUS BATHONIEN -
Sis,] a student of natural science, who lived in England
in the early part of the twelfth century. He wrote a book
entitled " Concerning the Natures of Things," (" De Na-
turis Rerum,") and made a translation of Euclid from the
Arabic into Latin, at a time when this work was almost
unknown in Western Europe.
Adelbert. See ADALBERT.

Ad el-bold, [Lat. ADELBOL DUS, ADELBAL DUS, or
ATHELBAL DUS,] a bishop of Utrecht, who flourished in
the early part of the eleventh century. He was distin
guished for his piety, and was a great patron of learning
and the arts. Died in 1027.

Adelburner, a del-booR ner, or Adelbulner, a del-
bool ner, (MICHAEL,) a German mathematician, born at
Nuremberg in 1702, became professor at Altdorf in 1743.
He published an astronomical journal, called " Commer-
cium Astronomicum," (1735-40,) which had great suc
cess. Died in 1779.

See MONTUCI.A, "Histoire des Mathematiques."
Adelcrantz or Adelkrantz, a del-kRants , the name
of two Swedish architects, father and son. The latter,
CHARLES FREDERICK, who was the more eminent, was
horn at Stockholm in 1716, and died in 1796.

Adeler, a dcl -er, also written Adelaar, (CoRD or
CONRAD SIVF.RTSKN,) a famous admiral, born in Nor
way in 1622. He entered the service of Venice in his
youth, and obtained command of a fleet. In 1654 he
gained a signal victory over the Turkish fleef, anil killed
\\ith his own hand the admiral Ibraheem Pasha. The
King of Denmark recalled him in 1663, and gave him the
command of his navy. Adeler was appointed grand ad-
m ral in 167^, and died the same year.

Ad el-frid, a Saxon king, was slain in battle in 617.

Ad-el-gi sus, called also A del-eli:s, the only son

of Desiderius, King of the Longobards. Though a brave

prince, he was defeated, with his father, by Charlemagne.
in 773 ; after which he fled to Constantinople. Little
else is known respecting him.

Adelgisus, a prince of Beneventum, (now Benevento,)
who lived in the ninth century. He was murdered by
his own relations in 878.

Adelgreiff, a del-gRif , (JoHANN ALBRECHT,) a noto
rious fanatic of the seventeenth century. He claimed to
represent God on earth. He was beheaded at Konigs-
berg in 1636.

Ad el-man, (or a del-man ,) an ecclesiastical writer,
who lived about the middle of the eleventh century,
was Bishop of Brescia.

Adelon, sd loN , (NICOLAS PHILIBERT,) a French
physician and writer, born at Dijon about 1780. lie was
a favourite pupil of Chaussier, with whom he co-operated
in the first volumes of the "Biographic Universelle."
In 1823-2-4 he published a "Treatise on the Physiology
of Man," (4 vols.) He obtained the chair of legal medi
cine in Paris in 1826, and continued to occupy it so late
as 1858. Died in July, 1862.

Adelstan. See ATHELSTAN.

Adelung, a deh-loong, (FRIEDRICH,) a German phi
lologist, born at Stettin m 1768, was a nephew of Johann
Christoph, noticed below. He removed to St. Peters
burg, where he became preceptor to the grand duke
Nicholas, (afterwards emp eror,) and a counsellor of state.
Among his works are "The Relations between the San
scrit and Russian Languages," (1815,) and an " Essay on
the Sanscrit Literature and Language," (1830.) Died at
St. Petersburg in 1843.

See GRETSCII, " Histoire de la Litterature Russe."

Adelung or Adlung, ad loong, (JACOB,) an organist
and writer on music, born near Erfurt, in Germany, in
1699 ; died in 1762.

Adelung, (JOHANN CHRISTOPH,) a distinguished phi
lologist and lexicographer, born near Anklam, in Pofne r
rania, in 1732. He commenced the study of theology at
the University of Halle, but his tastes led him to general
literature and philology, to which, from about the year
1761, he appears to have devoted all his time and thoughts.
He wrote several historical works, which, however, have
attracted but little attention. That on which his fame
principally rests is his "Attempt at a Complete Gram-
matico-Critical Dictionary of the German Language,"
(" Versuch eines vollstandigen Grammatisch-Ktltischen
Wb rterbuches der Hochdeutschen Mundart.") This
great German work has been compared to the great Eng
lish dictionary of Dr. Johnson ; but Adelung s is supe
rior to Johnson s in its definitions, and in all that relates
to etymology. His dictionary attracted great attention
in Germany ; and, as a reward for the important service
he had rendered to German literature, he was appointed,
by the Elector of Saxony, chief librarian of the public
library of Dresden, with the title of Hofrath, (" court-
counsellor,") an office which he held until his death.
Among the defects, however, of Adelung s dictionary
may be named : ist, an excessive partiality for the dialect
of Upper Saxony, which caused him to reject words used
in other parts of Germany ; 2clly, his fastidious rejection
of all new words not sanctioned by what he considered
good authority. Besides writing a German grammar,
and several other books illustrating his own tongue, he
commenced a great work, entitled " Mithridates, oder
Allgemeine Sprachen-Kunde," a general treatise on lan
guage, which was finished, after liis death, by J. S. Vater.
Died in 1806.

See ERSCH und GRUUKK, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Ge ne rale."

Adelwalch, ad el-wolk, a king of Sussex, who was
slain in battle in 686.

Ad e-mar [Lat. ADFMA RUS] or Aymar, Ji maV, a
French historical writer, who flourished in the early part
j of the eleventh century.

Ad-e-ma rus, a courtier of Otho III., Emperor of
! Germany, by whom he was appointed Duke of Spoletim&gt;
! (Spoleto) and Marquis of Camerino, about the end of the
tenth century.

Aclenez or Adenes, fd na or S deh-na , sometimes
written Adaiis, surnamed LE Roi, (leh Rwa,) a cele
brated minstrel, born in Brabant about 1240. He was.

as k; 9 a

tiltitr,

nasal: K, trill fd: s as a; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.;

ADEODAT

ADLERFELD

first patronized by Henry III., Duke of Brabant, and
afterwards by Philip the Bold, King of France. The
time of his death is unknown.

Adeodat. See DIEUDONNE.

Adeodato, a-da-o-da/tj, an Italian sculptor, who lived
in the twelfth century.

Ader, i daia , (G JILLAUME,) a physician and medical
writer, who lived at Toulouse, in France, about the be
ginning of the seventeenth century.

Adet, S di , (PiERRE AUC.USTE,) a French politician
and chemist, born at Nevers in 1763. He was sent, in
1795, as minister to the United States, but resigned or
suspended his office in 1797, on account of an alleged vio
lation of neutrality. Having returned to France, he
became, in 1809, a member of the legislative body. He
published "Elements of Chemistry," (1804.) Died in
1832.

Adgillui (ad-jil lus) I. and II., two dukes of Fries-
iand, who lived in the latter part of the seventh and the
beginning of the eighth century.

Adhad-ed-Daulah, (or -Eddoulat.) See AZAD-UD-

DOYVLAH.

Adh-dhahebee or Adh-dhahebi, aD-Da heh-bee ,
(almost ath-tha heh-bee ,) written also Al-Dzahabi, sur-
uamed SHEMS-ED-DEEN, (i.e. the "Sun of Religion,")
an eminent Arabian writer and lawyer, born at Damas
cus about 1274. He was raised to the high office of
Mufti of Damascus. Died about 1347. His principal
work is a chronological history of all the Moslem nations
from the creation down to his own time.

Adh-dhobbee (Adh-dhobbi) or Ad-dobbee, ao-
Dob bee or ath-thob bee , a native of Cordova, who wrote
a valuable history of the Spanish Arabs. He flourished
about the beginning of the thirteenth century.

Adhemar, a cleh-maR , written also Azeiiiars, (WIL
LIAM,) a Provenal poet of the twelfth century, who is
said to have loved the Countess of Die so passionately
that, on hearing she was about to be married to the Count
of Embrun, he fell desperately ill, and, having sent for
her, expired in her presence. This so affected her that
.she abandoned all thoughts of marriage, and died of
grief a few years afterwards.

Adhemar de Monteil, ad eh-mar deh mon-tal ,
[Fr. pron. td miR deh moN til or moN ti ye,] an eccle
siastic, statesman, and warrior, who lived in the four
teenth century. He was appointed Bishop of Metz in
1327, and died in 1361. He had the reputation of a
spirited and magnificent prince.

Ad-her bal, [Gr. Aru/jJac,] a Carthaginian command
er during the first Punic war, who gained a great victory
over the Roman fleet 249 B.C.

Adherbal, the son of Micipsa, King of Numiclia. On
the death of his father (i;.c. 118) he shared the kingdom
with his brother Hiempsal and his cousin Jugurtha, by
whom he was slain, 112 K. c. (See JUGURTHA.)

Adi-Buddha, (or -Booddha.) See BOODDHA.

Adil-Shah-Yoosuf, (or-Yusuf,) a dil-shahyoo soof,
a .son of the Turkish sultan Amurath II., whom, on the
death of this monarch in 1451, his mother contrived to
secrete from the executioners sent by his brother, Mo
hammed II., for the purpose of destroying him, and
caused him to be privately conveyed to Persia, whence
he afterwards fled to Hindostan. Here he entered the
service of Mohammed Shah, (II.,) King of the Dekkan,
and gradually ross to the highest military offices in the
state. On the death of Mohammed Shah, an attempt
was made by a corrupt faction at court to destroy Yoosuf ;
but he withdrew to Bejapoor, (of which province he had
been appointed governor,) where his military fame and
his high character for liberality and justice soon drew to
his standard multitudes of the best and bravest of the
land. Though at first he acted uniformly on the de
fensive, he at length (about i^oo) established an empire
on the ruin of his enemies. He had previously, in 1489,
assumed the title of royalty. He died about 1510. His
posterity continued to reign at Bejapoor till 1689, when
their capital was taken by Aurungzebe, and Sikandar,
the last of the Adil-Shah dynasty, was made prisoner by
the conqueror.

Ad-i-man tus, [ Afe /zavroc,l the commander of the
Corinthian ships during the invasion of Greece by Xerxes,

480 11. c. He appears to have been destitute alike of skill
and bravery.

Adimantus is also the name of an Athenian gen
eral who was defeated and taken prisoner by Lysandcr
at /Egospotami, 405 B.C.

Acumaiitus, a Manichoean writer, who is supposed
to have lived in the fourth century.

Adimari, a-de-ma ree, a noted, though not noble,
Florentine family, who hold a considerable place in the
history of Italy in the middle ages.

Adimari, ( ALESSANDRO,) a classical scholar and poet,
bom at Florence about 1580, made a translation of Pindar
into Italian verse. Died in 1649.

Adimari, (Luoovico,) born at Naples in 1644;
died at Florence in 1708. He was professor of Tuscan
in the Academy of Florence, and wrote, in Italian, satiric
poetry which is much admired by some.

Aditi, ad I-tl, [common Hindoo pron. ud I-tT,] the wife
of Kasyapa, and the mother of the gods. She is sometimes
styled, for greater distinction, the "mother of Indra."
She is supposed to personify the earth.

See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."

Aditya, a dit-ya, [in the English plural, ADITYAS,!
the name given to twelve Hindoo deities, sons of Aditi.
They are said to represent the sun in each of the differ
ent months of the year. Among the Adityas the prin
cipal are Varuna, Surya, Indra, Yama, and Vishnu, who, in
his fifth Avatar, was born as the son of Kasyapa and Aditi.

See MOOR, Hindu Pantheon."

Adler, (CASPAR.) See AQUII.A.

Adler, acl ler, (GEORG CHRISTIAN,) a theological
writer and eminent teacher, born in Silesia in 1674.
He founded a school at Konigsberg, which afterwards
became a gymnasium, being now called the " Collegium
Fredericianum." Died in 1741.

Adler, (GEORG CHRISTIAN,) son of the preceding,
was born in 1734. He was chief pastor of a Lutheran
congregation at Altona, and died in 1804. Besides other
works of the same kind, he wrote one on the topography
of the city of Rome, (1781.)

Adler, (GF.ORG J.,) a philologist, born at Leipsic, in
Germany, in 1821. He came to the United States in
1833, graduated at the University of New York in 1844,
and from 1846 to 1854 was professor of the German lan
guage in that institution. He is the author of several
German and Latin school manuals, and of an excellent
German and English dictionary. Died in New York in
August, 1868.

Adler, acl ler, (JACOB GEORG,) a Danish Orientalist,
born at Amis, in Sleswick, in 1755, became professor
of theology at Copenhagen in 1788. Among his works
is one on the Cufic writings or inscriptions, (" Musauim
Cuficum Borgianum," 2 vols., 1782-92.) Died in 1805.

Adler, (PHILIPP,) the first who carried the art of etch
ing to any degree of excellence, was born in Nuremberg
in 1484. The date of his death is unknown. He en
graved many of the works of Albert Diirer.

Adlerbeth, ad ler-bet , (GUDMUND GORAN,) a trans
lator and Swedish poet, born at Jonkfiping in 1751. In
1778 he was appointed antiquary and private secretary
to Gustavus III., whom he accompanied on a tour to
Rome. He was afterwards made councillor of the state,
and baron, besides receiving numerous other honours. .
Died in 1818. He was a voluminous writer ; among his
works are many operas and tragedies, constructed on the
plan of the French school. He translated the works of
Virgil, Horace, and the Metamorphoses of Ovid.

Adlerfeld or Adlerfelt, ad ler-felt , (GUSTAF,) a
Swedish historical writer, born near Stockholm in 1671.
He was appointed by Charles XII. /lof-jinikan; or gen
tleman of the court, and afterwards accompanied the
king on several of his campaigns, of which he wrote a
regular journal until his death. He was killed by a can
non-ball in the famous battle of Pultowa, (or Poltava,)
July 8, 1709.

Adlerfeld, (PEHR, or PETKR,) a brother of the preced
ing, born at Stockholm in 1680. lie was made a co onel
in the Swedish army in 1712, and in 1720 was, raisec tc
the rank of a baron, and made a member of the Riks-
rad, " Council of the Kingdom." He was killed, ir.

5, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; gcvkl; ir oon ;

ADLERSCREUTZ

ADO M NAN

1743, while defending his native city against the insurgent
Ualecarlians.

Adlerscreutz, ad leRs-kRoits , (BARON,) a Swedish
general, was the leader of the party which dethroned
Gustavus IV. in 1809.

Adlersparre, ad ler-spar rn, (GEORG,) COUNT OF, a
Swedish general and writer, born in 1760. He acted a
prominent part in the conspiracy or revolt which de
throned Gustavus IV. in 1809. Died in 1837.

Adlung. See ADELUNG.

Adlzreiter, ad elts-rl ter or ad lts ri ter, QOHANN,) a
lawyer and statesman, born at Rosenheim, in Bavaria, in
1596. He became vice-chancellor and privy counsellor
.to Maximilian, Elector of Bavaria. Died in 1662. He
furnished important materials to the history of Bavaria,
by Fervaux, which was published under his name.

Ad-me tus, [Or. "Arty^/roc; Fr. ADMETE, tcl mit ,] a
son of Pheres, King of Pheras in Thessaly, succeeded his
father on the throne. Apollo, who had been banished
from Olympus for one year, tended the herds of Admetus
during that period. Admetus became a suitor for Al-
cestis, the daughter of Pelias, who promised her to him
on condition that he would come in a chariot drawn
by a lion and a wild boar. With the help of Apollo
he fulfilled that condition, and married Alcestis. (See
ALCESTIS.)

Admiral, L , Itd me ril , (JEAN,) a French portrait-
painter in miniature, born in Normandy in 1698. Died
in 1773.

Ado, a do, SAINT, born about 800, in the territory
of Gatinois, in the north of Gaul, became Archbishop of
Vicnne in 860, and died in 875. He wrote a work pur
porting to be a chronicle of events from the creation to
the year 874.

Adoaldus. See ADALOALDUS.

Adolf, a dolf, a German sculptor, who lived in the
beginning of the sixteenth century.

Adolf, (JOSEPH FRANZ,) a German painter, who died
about 1750. He excelled in painting horses.

Adolfi, a-dol fee, (CiRO,) an Italian painter, born at
Bergamo in 1683 ; died in 1758. As an artist he was
much superior to his brother Giacomo.

Adolfi, (GiACOMO,) a brother of the preceding, also
a painter, was born in 1682 ; died in 1741.

Adolphe, (of Cleves, Guelders, etc.) See ADOLPHUS.

Adolphi, a-dol fee, (CHRISTIAN MICHAEL,) a German
physician, professor of medicine at Leipsic, born in 1676;
died in 1753.

Adolphi, (CiRO.) See ADOLFI.

A-dol phus, [Fr. ADOLPHE, f dolf ,] son of Arnold,
the sixth Duke of Guelderland, born in 1438. He was
in constant disputes with his father from his earliest
years, and at length, in 1465, suddenly seized and im
prisoned him, and then extorted from him a formal act
of abdication. But he was afterwards compelled by
John I., Duke of Cleves, and Charles the Bold, of Bur
gundy, to release him and restore to him all his posses
sions. Adolphus, in turn, was seized and kept in con
finement for several years, during which time his father
died. Having at length, on the death of Charles the
Bold, been released, he was soon after killed, while be
sieging Tournay, in 1477.

Adolphus for Adolph) I., Duke of Holstein and
Sleswick, son of Frederick I., King of Denmark, was
born in 1526. He was distinguished as a soldier, and
was the founder of several hospitals and flourishing pub
lic schools. Died in 1586, after a rule of forty-two years.

Adolphus (or Adolph) I., Count of Holstein, one of
the most remarkable men of his time, flourished in the
early part of the twelfth century. Little is known re
specting him, except that he was distinguished both as a
statesman and a warrior, and contributed greatly to the
diffusion of Christianity among the Wendi, a neighbour
ing nation of Slavonian origin. Died in 1131.

Adolphus (Adolph) II., a son of the preceding,
succeeded his father while still very young. Though
at first unsuccessful in his campaign against Magnus,
Duke of Sleswick, and in his war with Henry the Proud,
Duke of Saxony, he soon recovered himself, and after
wards eclipsed even the glory of his father. He com
pletely subdued the Wendi, and, by planting colonies in

the territories which they had occupied, thoroughly Ge
manized the country. To those colonies the towns o.
Lubeck and Eutin owe their origin. He gained several
victories over Canute, Prince of the Danes. In 1164.
however, while engaged in the siege of Demmin, in
Ponierania, he was, through treachery, suddenly attacked
and slain, after an administration of thirty-three years.

Adolphus (Adolph) III., Count of Holstein, was a
son of Adolphus II., whom he succeeded. Although a
valiant soldier, he appears to have been far inferior to
his father in justice and wisdom. Having sided with
Waldemar, Bishop of Sleswick, in his contest with Can
ute, King of Denmark, in 1200, Adolphus lost nearly all
his possessions, and died soon after.

Adolphus (Adolph) IV., son of the preceding, re
covered Holstein from Waldemar, King of Denmark,
whom he defeated in a great battle near Eutin. In 1238
he entered a monastery, where he passed the remaining
fourteen years of his life as an humble friar.

Adolphus [Fr. ADOLPHE, t dolf] II., Duke of Cleves,
was born in 1371. He was almost constantly engaged
in wars, chiefly with his brother Gerard, Duke of Mark.
He died in 1448, leaving behind him a high reputation
for piety and justice, as well as for bravery and enterprise
as a soldier.

Adolphus (Adolph) VIII., Duke of Sleswick, was
the son of Gerard, Count of Holstein. His father hav
ing died when he was but three years old, he received
his education at the court of the emperor Sigismund.
In 1440 Christopher, King of Denmark, conferred Sles
wick upon Adolphus as a fief. When Christopher died,
in 1448, the crown of Denmark was offered him, but he
declined it. He died in 1459, leaving a high character
for wisdom and justice.

Adolphus, (FREDERICK,) a king of Sweden, born in
1710, was descended from the royal line of Vasa. He was
elected to the Swedish throne in 1743. The royal au
thority, however, was at this period almost entirely over
borne by the council of the states ; and, after having been
continually thwarted in his wishes by that body, Fred
erick Adolphus at length, in 1769, tendered the resigna
tion of his crown. Upon this the council made some
trifling concessions, and he remained a nominal king till
his death, in 1771.

Adolphus (or Adolph) II., ( JOHN, or JOHANN,) Duke
of Saxe-Weissenfels, sprung from a collateral branch of
the electoral (now royal) line of Saxony, was born in
1685. He early distinguished himself by his bravery
and military skill. In 1704 he was made a lieutenant-
general in the Hessian service, and in 1710, Augustus,
Elector of Saxony, appointed him one of the generals of
his forces then engaged against Charles XII. of Sweden.
His two older brothers having died, Adolphus became
Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels in 1736. In 1744 he took an
active part against Frederick II. of Prussia ; but, ex
hausted by the fatigues and hardships through which
he had passed, he soon after retired to his duchy, where
he died in 1746.

Adolphus (Adolph) OF NASSAU [in Latin, ADOI/-
PHUS NASSOVIEN SIS] was elected, in 1292, successor to
Rudolph, Emperor of Germany. Though possessed of
considerable military talents, by his falsehood and bru
tality he soon became very unpopular, and in 1298 was
deposed by an assembly of the electors. He refused,
however, to relinquish his power. But in a battle fought
soon after (in 1298) between him and Albert his succes
sor, Adolphus was slain, fighting desperately.

See J. P. WAGNER, "Vita Adolphi Naspoviensis," i775~?o; J. G
LEUCHS, "Adolph der Nassauer, Kaiser ur.d Kiinig der DeutEchcn,"
1798.

A-dol phus, (JOHN,) an English lawyer and historian,
born about 1770. He practised in the criminal courts of
London, and had a high reputation as an eloquent ad
vocate. His chief work is a "History of England, from
the Accession of George III.," (7 vols., 1805-45,) which
displays considerable research and learning. Among
his other works we may name " Biographical Memoirs
of the French Revolution," (4 vols., 1799.) He gained
great credit by his able defence of Thistlcwood, charged
with treason, in 1820. Died in 1845.

Ad om-nan or Ad am-nan , [Lat. ADOMNA NUS

c as i-; q as .r; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)

ADONIJAH

ADRIAN

or ADAMNA NUS,] also written Adaman/nus, an abbot
of the monastery of lona, born about 624. According
to some writers, he was a native of Ireland ; according to
others, of Scotland. He was a contemporary and friend
of King Alfred of Northumbria. He is the author of a
" Life of St. Columba," a curious work, which throws
interesting light upon the political and social condition
of that period.

Ad-o-m jah, [Heb. H JIN,] a son of King David and
Haggith, who] near the close of his father s reign, aspired
to the succession in opposition to the claims of Solomon.
He was afterwards put to death by the order of Solomon,
1030 B.C., it is supposed. (See I. Kings i. 5 ; ii. 13.)

A-db nis, [Gr. "A&lt;5uwc,] a son of Cin yras, King of
Cyprus, represented by the poets as a youth of exquisite
beauty. He was passionately fond of hunting, and, not
withstanding the anxious admonitions of Venus, by
whom he was greatly beloved, he exposed himself daily
in the chase, and at last was killed by a boar which he
had wounded. From his blood sprang the anemone, a
beautiful flower. Venus was inconsolable at his loss ;
but she obtained at last from Proserpine that Adonis
should spend six months of every year with her on earth,
and the other six in Hades. Adonis or Adonai (i.e.
" Lord") was an Oriental title sometimes given to the
sun, as the " lord of day :" the preceding fable, therefore,
is supposed to allude to the periodical return of summer
and winter. Hence the expressions " Beautiful as Ado
nis" and " Beautiful as day"* (in French, " Beau comme
le jour") maybe considered as equivalent to each other.

Adorni, a-doR nee, (CATERINA or CATHERINA
Fieschi fc-es kee,) an Italian poetess, born at Genoa
in 1447, wrote on religious subjects. Died in 1510.

See CATTANEO MARBATTO, "Vita de Catherina Adorni."

Adorno, a-cloii no, (in the plural, Adorni, a-cloR nee,)
an influential Genoese family, from which, between 1360
and 1530, no fewer than six doges of Genoa were chosen.
They held, however, a precarious authority, being ever
and anon driven from the city according as the opposing
faction (the Fregosi) chanced for the moment to prevail.

Adorno, (ANTONIO,) a doge of Genoa, elected in
1384, is said to have been an enlightened and liberal
statesman. Died in 1397.

Adorno, (FRANCESCO,) an eminent Italian Jesuit, born
about 1530, was the author of several theological works.
Died in 1586.

Adorno, (PROSPER or PROS PERO,) was elected Doge
of Genoa in 1461, but was soon expelled from the city
by Paul Fregoso. He was restored to power in 1477,
and defeated the Duke of Milan in battle in 1478, soon
after which he was driven out by a sedition. Died at
Naples in 1486.

See VARESE, "Storia della Republica di Genova."

A-drain , (ROBERT,) LL.D., a distinguished mathema
tician, born in Ireland in 1775. Having emigrated to
America, he became successively professor of mathema
tics and natural philosophy in Rutgers College, New
Brunswick, and Columbia College, New York, and sub
sequently professor of mathematics in the University of
Pennsylvania. He edited Mutton s Mathematics. Died
at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1843.

A-dras tcts, [Gr. "Mpzame; Fr. ADRASTE, t dRfst ,] a
king of Argos, contemporary with Theseus. He was
the leader of a celebrated expedition against Thebes, the
object of which was to restore Polynices to the throne
of that state. This expedition, which was called the war
of the " Seven against Thebes," was not successful. All
of the Seven, except Adrastus, were killed at Thebes.
The war of :he Seven against Thebes was a favourite
subject of ancient epic and tragic poets.

Adrastus, ["AJpacrror;,] a Greek, who wrote a com
mentary on the works of Aristotle, and a treatise on
music, which is extant. Nothing is known of his life ; it
s supposed that he lived in the first or second century.

^Adrets, des, d& zfdaj/, (FRANQOIS Beaumont
jo mo.N ,) BARON, usually called simply Des Adrets,

* " For he was beautiful as day
When day was beautiful to me
As to young eagles being free."

BYRON S Prisoner of Chillon.

a celebrated French nobleman, born in 1513, became a
leader of the Hugiienots in 1562, out of resentment to
the Duke of Guise. He was distinguished for great mili
tary talents, the boldness and celerity of his movements,
and for the most atrocious cruelty. In 1567 he joined
the Catholic party ; but soon after, incurring their sus
picions, he was thrown into prison. Though released hi
1571, he never regained his influence, but, distrusted and
abhorred by all, died in 1587.

See GUI-ALLARD, "Vie du Baron Des Adrets," 1675.

Adria, a chie-a, (GIOVANNI GIACOMO,) an eminent
Italian physician, born at Mazara, in Sicily, about the
beginning of the fifteenth century. The emperor Charles
V. made him his own physician, ennobled him, and ap
pointed him proto-mcdicus of Sicily. Died in 1 560.

Adriaens, a dRe-ins , ( LUCAS,) a Flemish painter,
who lived in the latter half of the fifteenth century.

Adriaensen, a dRe-ftn sen, (ALEXANDER,) a Flemish
painter, born at Antwerp about 1620. He painted flow
ers, fruit, vases, etc., with exquisite skill.

See DESCAMPS, " ViesdesPeintres Flamands."

Adriaensen, (CORNELIS,) a popular Catholic preach
er and Franciscan friar, born at Dordrecht (Dort) about
1520. The Protestants, to whom he was extremely ob
noxious, charged him with the most scandalous conduct,
whether justly or not cannot now be determined. Died
in 1581.

See VOET, "Historia von Bruder Cornells, etc.," 1613.

Adrian, a/dre-an, [Gr. A(5pn&gt;6r; Lat. ADRIA NUS,] a
Greek writer of the fifth century, who wrote an intro
duction to the Scriptures.

A drian [ A&lt;5p;ai&gt;6f] or Ha drian OF TYRE, a Greek
sophist of the second century, studied eloquence at Athens
under Herodes Atticus, whom he succeeded in his school.
His reputation was so high that he was invited to Rome
by Marcus Aurelius. He died at Rome during the reign
of Commodus, whom he served as secretary.

Adrian or Adrianus, (Emperor.) See HADRIAN.

A dri-anor Ha dri-an,[Lat. ADRIA NUS or HADRIA -
NUS,] a native of Africa, who was made abbot of the
monastery of St. Peter, at Canterbury, about 670. Ac
cording to Bede, he was a man of great learning, both
theological and secular.

Adrian [Lat. ADRIA NUS; It. ADRIANO, d-dRe-a no;
Fr. ADRIEX, t dRe aN ] I., son of Theodore, of a dis
tinguished Roman family, was elected pope in 772.
When Desiderius, King of the Longobards, had taken
several towns belonging to the papal see, and was pro
ceeding to Rome, Adrian threatened him with excom
munication, the first instance on record of such a threat
to a sovereign prince. He was, however, indebted to
Charlemagne for protection against the Longobard king.
In the reign of this pontiff (A. D. 787) was held at Nicasa,
(Nice,) in Bithynia, the seventh rccumenic council, which
recognized and restored the worship of images. In 794
Charlemagne assembled at Frankfort-on-the-Main a
general council of the West, which justified the use of
images in churches, but condemned their worship, a
limitation disapproved by the pope, though countenanced
by the King of the Franks. Adrian appears to have
been an able and liberal prince. During his pontificate
Rome enjoyed a degree of peace and prosperity to which
she had long been a stranger. He built, or repaired, at
his own expense, several public edifices ; he was also
very liberal towards the poor. Died in 795.

See PAN VINIO, " Vite dei Pontefici." .

Adrian II., a native of Rome, succeeded Nicholas I.
in the popeclom in 867, and died in 872.

Adrian III., a native of Rome, succeeded Marinas
as pope in 884, and died in 885.

Adrian IV. (NICHOLAS BREAKSPERE) was born
about the end of the eleventh century, near Saint Albans,
in England. Having gone to France to seek his fortune,
he was made abbot of a monastery near Avignon in 1137.
But the canons, displeased with his strict discipline,
brought charges against his character, which obliged him
to repair to Rome. The pope, Eugenius III., having
examined the matter, not only acquitted Nicholas entirely,
but was so pleased with him that he kept him about his
person, and in 1146 appointed him Cardinal-Bishoi) of

a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ij, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n8t; good; nn55n-

AD RUN

^EGISTHUS

Albano. After the death of Anastasius IV., in 1154, he
was raised to the holy see by the name of Adrian IV.
lie was a man of acknowledged talents, but his exalted
views of papal supremacy involved him in serious dif
ferences with the emperor Frederick, (of Suabia,) which,
still unsettled at his death, led to an open rupture dur
ing the pontificate of his successor, Alexander III.
Adrian IV. died in 1159. He was the only Englishman
ever raised to the papal chair.

Adrian V., a native of Genoa, was elected to the
Roman see in 1276, and died the same year.

Adrian VI., a native of Utrecht, was raised to the
papal see on the death of Leo X., in 1521. He had
formerly been preceptor to the emperor Charles V., by
whom he was greatly esteemed. He was a sincere and
upright man, and saw with profound sorrow the scandal
ous abuses which then prevailed in the Catholic churches.
He justly attributed the formidable progress of Protest
antism to the sins of the Catholics, particularly to those
of the higher clergy. He undertook and accomplished
several important reforms ; which, however, rendered
him extremely unpopular. When he died, (A.D. 1523,)
the people of Rome, especially those about the court,
expressed the most indecent joy.

A drian. de Cas-tel lo or Adriano di Castello,

a-dRe-a no de kas-tel lo, a native of Tuscany, who was
agent for English affairs at the court of Rome, and was
afterwards appointed Bishop of Hereford, whence he
was translated to the bishopric of Bath and Wells. lie
was made cardinal by Pope Alexander VI. Wolsey suc
ceeded him as Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1518: He
wrote Latin poems, and "On True Philosophy," (" De
Vera Philosophia,") which was frequently printed. Died
about i S2O.

A dri-an, [Russ. pron. a-dre-an ,] the last primate or
patriarch of Russia, died in 1702, after which the office
of patriarch was suppressed by Peter the Great.

Adrian, a due-an, QOHANN VALENTIN,) a German
litterateur, born at Khngenberg, on the Main, in 1793.
He became professor of modern languages at Giessen
in 1823. Among his works is one called "Pictures of
England," (" Bilder aus England," 2 vols., 1828.)

Adriani, a-due-a nce, (JoiiN BAPTIST, or GIOVANNI
BATTISTA,) an Italian historian, born at Florence in 1513.
He was appointed, in 1549, professor of eloquence in
the University of P lorence, which office he held till his
death in 1579. He wrote a " History of his own Times,"
(" Istoria dc suoi Tempi," 1583,) which is much es
teemed.

Adriani, (MARCELI.O,) a son of John Baptist Adriani,
whom lie succeeded as professor of eloquence. Died in
1604, aged about 70.

Adriani, (MARCEI.LO VIRGILIO,) the father of John
Baptist Adriani. He was born at Florence in 1464, and
became professor of belles-lettres ; in 1498 he was
made chancellor of the republic. He made a good
Latin version of Dioscorides " De Materia Medica."
Died in 1521.

Adriano, (Pope.) See ADRIAN.

Adriano (a-clRe-a no) THE FRIAR, a Spanish histori
cal painter, who was born at Cordova, and died there in
1630. He was a pupil of Cespedes, and painted a Mag
dalen, which Palomino pronounced equal to Titian in
style.

Adriansen, a-dKe-an sen, (ALEXANDER,) a Flemish
painter of fish, born about 162^.

Adricliomia, a-dre-ko mc-a, (CORNELIA,) a mm of
the order of St. Augustine, in the sixteenth century, who
versified the Psalms of David, and composed other sa
cred poems.

Ad-rl -eho mi-us, (CmusTiANUS,) a writer, born at
Delft, in Holland, in 1533. Being a Catholic priest, he
was driven from his native country on the overthrow of
Mic authority of Spain, and died at Cologne in 1^85.
He left a work on the geography of the Holy Land, cn-
itlcd " Theatrum Terras Sanctac," (1593.) He also
vrote, under the name of Christianus Crucius, a " Life
of Christ."

Adrien, the French of ADRIAN, which see.

Adry, S dRe , (JEAN F.,) a French writer, born near
Auxerre in 1749. He was professor of rhetoric at
Troyes, and afterwards received a pension from the gov
ernment. He wrote several biographical works, besides
making various compilations, translations, etc. Died in
1818.

Adryan, a-dri-an , (ALBIN,) a Polish poet, born about
1490. Died at Cracow about 1540.

Ad so, Az o, or As so,[Fr. ADSON, td siN 1 ,] a French
monk, born about 910 A.D. He wrote the lives of sev
eral saints.

Aduarte, a-Doo-au ta, almost ad-waR ta, (DiEGO,)
a Spanish historian, born at Saragossa about 1570. He
was a missionary to the Philippine Islands, and in 1632
was made Prior of Manilla, where he died in 1637. He-
has left a very interesting account of his missionary
labours, and of the dangers and sufferings which he and
the other Spanish missionaries encountered in conse
quence of their efforts to introduce Christianity into
Cambodia; he also wrote a history of the martyrdom of
the Christian converts in Japan, and several other works.

Adveuier-Fontenille, I d veh-ne-i foNt nel or foNt -
ne ye, a French captain of engineers, who wrote an opera
and other works. Born at Paris in 1773 ; died in 1827.

Adventius, ad-ven shc-us, a bishop of Metz, who
flourished in the latter halTc)f the ninth century.

-SUacides, e-ass e-dez, [Gr. AJawcwfyf,] the father of
Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, was killed in battle 313 is.c.

.ffiacus, ee a-kus, [Gr. AtuKoc; Fr. EAQUE, a fk ,]
(Myth.,) a son of Jupiter and /Egina, reigned in the island
of /Egina. He was the father of Telamon and Peleus.
Lie was renowned for justice and piety, and after his
death became one of the judges of Hades.

^EJantides, e-an te-dez, [A/ovrtd^j 1 ,] a Greek poet,
lived at Alexandria about 300 li.C.

.SJdesius, e-dee she-us, [Gr. AWt itcr.] a New-Plato-
nist, native of CappadocTa, lived in the time of Constan-
tine the Great. He was a disciple of the celebrated
lamblichus. Some of the most distinguished men of the
subsequent age were taught by him : among others, the
emperor Julian.

2Eetes, e-ce tez, or Sleta., e-ee ta, [Gr. A&lt;Y/r??f; Fr.
EKTK, a et or a it ,] a fabulous king of Colchis, regarded
as a son of Helios and Perseis, and the father of Medea
and Absyrtus. He was renowned as the possessor of
the golden fleece, the object of the Argonautic expedition.

JEgaeon, e-jee on, [Gr. Al*/aiur; Fr. EGEON, a zha oN ,]
a monster said to have a hundred arm?. (See BRIAREUS.)

^3geus, ee jus, [Gr. Aiym;; Fr. EGEE, a zha ,] a king
of Athens, was a son or adopted son of Pandi on, and
was the father of Theseus. According to tradition, he
drowned himself in the /Egean Sea.

JBgidius-a-Columna. See COLONNA, EGIDIO.

^Bgidius, e-jid e-us, (PETRUS,) OF ANTWERP, born
in 1490, travelled in Asia and Africa, and wrote a "De
scription of Thrace," etc. Died in 1555.

.ffigid ius Corbolieii sis, a medical writer, and physi
cian to Philip Augustus, King of France, lived about the
end of the twelfth century. He wrote several medical
treatises in Latin verse, which show him to have been a
man of information and considerable poetical skill.

.Sjgid ius Leodien sis, or Giles of Liege, a monk
and historical writer, lived between 1200 and 1250.

.ZEgidius Romamis. See COLONNA, EGIDIO.

JEgidius OE VITERBO [Lat. /EGID IUS VITERBIEN SIS]
was borVi near Viterbo in 1470. He was made cardinal
in 1517, and died in 1532. He was regarded as one of
the most eminent scholars and the best pulpit-orator of
that age.

JEIgimus, ej T-mus, or .S-gimiiis, e-jim e-us, [Myt/io&lt;;
or Alyittiof.] a Greek physician, who is supposed to have
lived before the time of Hippocrates. He is said to have
been the first who wrote particularly on the pulse.

.ffigirieta. See PAULUS /EG IN ETA.

JEJginhard. See EGINHARD.

^Igisthus, e-jis thus, [Gr. AlyiaOot;; Fr. ficiSTHE, a -
zhest ,] in classic mythology was regarded as a son of
Thyestes and Pelopea. The latter was a daughter of
Thycstes. He was adopted as a son by Atreus, and in
the absence of Agamemnon seduced CJytemnestra. He

e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

anations, p. 23.)

jEGTPTUS

AEROPE

was &gt;n accomplice in the murder of Agamemnon, and
wa.s killed by Orestes.

^Bgyptus, e-jip tus, [Gr. Atyimro?; Fr. EGYPTUS,
a zhep tus ,] a son of Belus, and a brother of Danaus.
He inherited Arabia from his father, and obtained by
conquest the country which derived from him the name
of Egypt. The poets feigned that he had fifty sons, who
were about to marry the fifty daughters of Danaus, but
were murdered by them. (See DANAIDES.)

Alfred. Sec ALFRED.

JEifric or JElfricus. See ALFRIC.

.SJliaii, ee le-an, [Lat. /ELIANUS, e-le-a nus ; Gr.
M Aiavos; Fr. ELIEN, a le iN ,] (CLAUDIUS,) a native of
Frzeneste in Italy, lived in the early part of the third
century. Although an Italian by birth, he ranks among
the purest Greek writers. He is the author of a work
entitled " Various History," made up chiefly of extracts
from other authors, and of a history of animals, which,
though written in a clear and agreeable style, is full ot
absurd stories.

^Eiian or ^-li-a nus Tac ti-cus, [ A/Atoi-of Toxrwcof ,]
a Greek writer, who nourished about the middle of the
second century. He wrote a work on the military tactics
of the Greeks, whence his surname "Tacticus."

-ZEliaiius Meccius mek she-us, a Roman physi
cian, who lived in the second century. He is mentioned
by Galen with high commendation.

JElius, ee le-us, (SEXTUS FOETUS CATUS,) an emi
nent Roman jurist, became consul in 536 A.U.C. A
portion of the Roman law was named after him the
- Elian law.

.ffilius Donatus. See DONATUS.

./Elius G-allus. See GALLUS.

-SUlius Marcianus. See MARCIANUS.

JE Liua Fro-mo tus, [Gr. AZAtof Ilpo/zwroc,] a physi
cian of Alexandria, who wrote several medical works in
the Greek language. His date is uncertain. Most critics
suppose that he lived before the Christian era.

^Bliioth, el noth, a monk, who was born in England
in the eleventh century, and removed to Denmark about
1085. He wrote a life of Saint Canute the Martyr.

Aelst or Aalst, van, vtn list, (VERT), a distin
guished Dutch painter, born at Delft in 1602. He
painted principally inanimate objects, as dead game, ves
sels of gold and silver, etc. Died in 1658.

Aelst, van, (WILLEM,) a nephew of the preceding,
by whom he was instructed, was born at Delft in 1620.
He excelled in the same department of art as his uncle.
He also represented fruits and flowers with exquisite
skill. Died in 1679.

-ZEmilia, e-mil e-a, (JULIANA,) [Ger. pron. yoo-le-a nii
a-mee le-a,] a countess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, born
in 1637. She married Count Albert Anton in 1665, and
died in 1706. She was eminent for her benevolence and
piety, and wrote a number of religious poems and hymns.

SJinilia Tertia, e-mil e-a ter she-a, a daughter of
Faulus /Emilius, and wife of Scipio Africanus the elder,
a Roman matron, distinguished for her prudence and
conjugal affection. Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi,
was her daughter.

.ffimiliaiius, e-mil-e-a nus, [Fr. MILIEN, a me le -
aN ,] a Roman prefect of Egypt, put to death for rebel
lion, by order of the emperor Gallienus.

JEmiliaaus, (MARCUS JULIUS ^EMILIUS,) a native
of Mauritania, born about 208 A.D. He was governor
of Pannonia and Moesia under the emperor Gallus.
His soldiers having proclaimed him emperor, Gallus
marched against him, but was murdered by his own
men, who went over to /Emilianus. The reign of the
latter, however, lasted but four months. He, in his
turn, was killed by his own soldiers, at Spoletum, in 254

A.D.

.SJmilius, e-mil e-us, or .ffimilianus, e-mil-e-a nus,
a Christian martyr, put to death by Huneric, King of the
Vandals, in 484 A.D. ,

-ffimilivis, (ANTONIUS,) a professor of history and a
friend of Descartes, was born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1589.
He wrote Latin verses. Died in 1660.

.ZEmilius Macer. See MACER.

_ .Slmilius, (MAMER CUS,) a Roman, who was three
times dictator. His first dictatorship was in 437 B.C.

JEmilius (PAULUS or PAULLUS) I., a Roman consul
and able general, who fell bravely at the battle of Can
nae, 216 B.C.

JEmilius (PAULUS or PAULLUS) II. See PAULUS.

.ZEmilius, (PAULUS,) an Italian historian. See EMILIO.

JEneee, a-na i, (HENRICUS,) a Dutch mathematician
and physicist, born in Friesland in 1743, became a mem
ber of the committee of the marine. He wrote a
" Treatise on Hydrostatics," and other works. Died in
1810.

./Eneas, e-nee as, [Gr. Aiveiaf ; Fr. ENEK, a na ,] the
hero of Virgil s great poem, (the "/Eneid,") was, accord
ing to tradition, the son of Anchises, a Trojan prince,
and the goddess Venus. In the various accounts given
of his life it is impossible to distinguish the fabulous
from the historical. Some writers relate that he went
to Thrace, and died there ; but, according to the more
popular tradition, which is followed by Virgil, /Eneas,
after the destruction of Troy, came to Italy, married
Lavinia the daughter of Latinus, King of Latium, and
prepared the foundation of the Roman empire. He had
a son, Ascanius or lulus, to whom the Julian family of
Rome traced their origin.

-SEneas Gazaeus ga-zee us, (so named from Gaza,
where he was born,) a Platonic philosopher, who em
braced Christianity in the latter half of the fifth century.
He wrote a book called "Theophrastus," in which the
Platonic and Christian doctrines are strangely blended.

JEneas Sylvius. See Pius II.

.ffineas Tacticus, [6 Ta;crc6f,] a Greek writer on
military tactics, lived, it is supposed, 350 B.C.

JEnesidemus, e-neVe-dee mus, [Gr. Ati^cr^/^of,] a
skeptical philosopher, native ofGnossus, (orCnossus,) in
Crete, is supposed to have lived in the first century.

JEnobarbus. See AHENOBARBUS.

JEolus, ee o-lus, [Gr. A&lt;o/loc; Fr. OLE, a ol ,] in
the Greek mythology, the god or ruler of the winds. He
is said to have reigned in the Aeolian Islands, and to
have enjoyed the favour of Juno. For a vivid descrip
tion of the country of the winds, and their prison, con
structed of high mountains, whence they could issue
only on the permission of yEolus, see Virgil s /lineid,
book i. 51-63.

.ffiolus, a mythical personage, said to have been a
son of Helen, a brother of Dorus, and the father of
Cretheus, Athamas, and Sisyphus. He was supposed
to be the founder of the /Eolic branch of the Greek
nation.

.a3pinus, e-pl nus, (FRANZ MARIA ULRIC THEO-
DOR,) a German natural philosopher and eminent elec
trician, born at Rostock in 1724. His proper name was
HOCII. Having settled in Saint Petersburg in 1757, he
became a member of the Academy of Sciences of that city,
and professor of physics. He possessed great sagacity
as an experimenter, discovered the electric properties
of tourmaline, and is justly regarded, says Biot, as the
inventor of the electrical condenser and electrophorus.
His principal work is an attempt to establish a new
theory of electricity, etc., entitled "Tentamen Theorize
Electricitatis et Magnetismi," (1759.) In this he en
deavoured to subject the phenomena of electricity to
mathematical analysis. He contributed many memoirs
to the academy above named. Died at Dorpat in 1802.

See " Memoires de I Academie de Berlin," 1756.

JE-pi nus, (JoiiN,) [in German, HUCH or HoECK,]*an
eminent Protestant divine, born at Brandenburg in 1499,
was a disciple of Luther. He became minister of a
church in Hamburg in 1529, and was the most influen
tial theologian in the North of Germany. In 1538 he
signed the Articles of Schmalkalden. He wrote several
polemical works. Died in 1553-

See ARNOLD GREVIUS, " Memoria /Epini," 1736.

A-e ri-us, [Gr. Aepwc,] a native of Pontus, who lived
in the fourth century. He was the founder of a heretical
sect called Aerians. He opposed offering prayers for
the dead, the keeping of Easter, and some other prevail
ing customs of the church.

Aerope, a-er o-pe, [Gr. Aepoiri); Fr. EROPE, a rop ,
or AEROPE, t a rop ,] a daughter of Crateus, King of
Crete, was married to Plisthenes, and afterwards to

i, e, T, o. li, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n3t; good; moon;

AERSCHOT

jE SO PUS

Atreus. She was the mother of Agamemnon and Mene-
laus.

Aerschot, DUKE OF. See AARSCIIOT.

Aerseiis. See AARSENS.

Aertseii, SRt sen, (PETER,) surnamed LUNGO,
(" long,") an eminent historical painter, born at Am
sterdam in 1519; died in 1573.

Aertsz, fiRts, (RICHARD,) a Dutch historical painter,
born at Wyck, in North Holland, in 1482, worked at
Antwerp, and died in 1577.

JEschines, es ke-nez, [Gr. Mox iv^; Fr. ESCHINE, s -
shen ,] a celebrated orator, and rival of Demosthenes,
bom at Athens about 389 B.C. He first became distin
guished as a soldier in the battle of Mantinea, (362 B.C.,)
and won the approbation of his general, Phocion, in
that of Tamynae, (350 li.c.) He began his political ca
reer as a violent opposer of Philip of Macedon ; but, after
his embassy to the Macedonian court, a change took
place, and he afterwards opposed a war with the king
as zealously as he had urged it before. This was either
the cause or the pretext of a quarrel between him and
Demosthenes, who charged /Eschines with preferring
Macedonian gold to the interests of his country. The
contest which followed between the rival orators is one
of the most remarkable in history, and it gave birth to
perhaps the finest specimens of rhetorical genius and
skill that are to be found in the literature of any nation.
At length Demosthenes triumphed : ^Eschines went
into exile, (330 B.C.,) and afterwards opened a school of
rhetoric at Rhodes, where he taught with great applause.
Died 314 i!.C.

"Alls?

meine Kncyklopaedie ;"" PLUTARCH, " Demosthenes," also " Vitas
])eccm Oratorum."

JGschiiies surnamed SOCRAT ICUS, a disciple of
Socrates, by whom he was highly esteemed. He lived
about 360 H.C.

JGschrion, eVkre-on, [Gr. A/o^pfuv,] a physician,
native of Pergamus, and preceptor of Galen. He lived
in the early part of the second century.

JEschylus, eVke-lus, [Gr. Aiaxi&lt;Aog ; Fr. ESCHYLE,
eVsh.61 ,] the first of the three great tragic poets of Greece,
was born at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 B. c. He distin
guished himself at the battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., and
ever after regarded this as the most glorious event of
his life. He gained his first prize in tragedy 484 B.C.
Having in 468 B.C. been defeated by Sophocles in the
first trial of this young poet, he left his native country
and went to Syracuse, in Sicily, where he was held in
great regard by King. Hiero. He afterwards returned to
Athens. The manner of his death, which took place
456 B.C., was extraordinary. An eagle soaring above
him dropped a tortoise on the bald head of the poet, and
killed him. /Eschylus is said to have written seventy
tragedies, besides a number of satiric dramas, and to
have gained thirteen prizes. Seven of his tragedies are
extant, viz., "Prometheus Bound;" "The Seven against
Thebes;" "The Persians;" "The Female Suppliants;"
"Agamemnon ;" " Choephorse ;" and "Eumenides."

According to Macaulay, ^Kschylus was a great lyric
poet, rather than a great dramatist. " Considered as
plays," he remarks, " his works are absurd ; considered
as choruses, they are above all praise. . . . But if we
forget the characters and think only of the poetry, we
shall admit that it has never been surpassed in energy
and magnificence." (See article on Milton in the "Edin
burgh Review," 1825.)

Speaking of the spirit of /Eschylus poetry, another
critic remarks, " If ever there was a poet filled with a
deep sense of the sacred nature of his calling as the
teacher of religion, and of all virtue as therewith con
nected, /Eschylus WP.S he. And this it is which to all
such as have studied him earnestly gives a character to
his poetry nothing less than awful." (Sec article en
titled "Modern Criticism on ^Eschylus," in the "Quar
terly Review" of October, 1839.

See PETKRSF.V, " De ./Eschyli Vita et Fabulis," 1814; AHRKNS,

Ueber ./Eschylus," 1832; R.H.Ki.AUSEN, "Theologumena /Eschyli
Tragici," 1829 ; F. JACOBS, " Ueber den Charakter des ./Kschylus ;"
ROCHEFORT, " Sur la Vie d Eschyle," 1785; FRENSDORFF, "Etudes
sur Eschyle," 1847; K. O. Miii.LER, "History of the Literature of
Ancient Greece;" EDWARD R. LANCE, " Programma de yEschylo
Poeta," 1832.

.ffisculapius, es-ku-la pc-ns, [Gr. AoK^Tnof, (As-
klefios] ; Fr. ESCULAPE, es kii ltp ,] (Myth.,) the god of
medicine, supposed to have been the son of Apollo and
Coronis. He is said to have raised men from the dead,
so that Jupiter, fearing lest the realms of Pluto should
become depopulated, struck him with thunder. After
his death he was translated to heaven. He is usually
represented as a venerable old man with a flowing beard.
Hygieia (i.e. " Health") is said to have been a daughter
of Asculapius.

.ffisir, a sjr, [Icelandic pron. T sjr,] sometimes incor
rectly written Asir, Asar, or Aser, [the Norse plural
of As, as, or ASA, a sa, a word of doubtful etymology,
but not improbably related to the Sanscrit as, to " be,"
and applied to the gods as " beings" par excellence.
^[J^The German plural of As is ASEN, a zen ; the Eng
lish plural ASAS or ASES is sometimes used,] the name
of the principal or ruling gods in the Norse mythology.
They may be said to be the representatives of life, order,
and progress, in contrast to the Jotuns, who typify, under
various forms, confusion, desolation, and death. (See
JOTUNS, and VANIR.) Among the /Esir are generally
reckoned twelve gods, viz., Odin, Thor, Balder, Niord,
,or Njord,) Frey, (or Freyr,) Tyr, Bragi, Heimdall,Vidar,
Vali, Ullur, and Forseti ; and the same number of god
desses, Frigga, Freyia, (called also Van adis,) Iduna, Eira,
Saga, Fulla, Siofn, (or Siona,) Lofn, (or Lovna,) Vara, (or
Vor,) Hlin, Gefione, and Syn, (or Synia.)

The dwelling-place of the /Esir is called Asgard, (i.e.
the " Asa court, ward, or garden.") It is represented as
a vast fortress, sufficiently capacious to contain the man
sions of all the gods and goddesses, as well as the field
or plain of Ida, the assembling-place of the gods. It is
Heimdall s special office to keep watch that the giants
(Jotuns) do not approach Asgard unperceived. Odin also
is said to have a lofty throne in Asgard, whence his eye
surveys all the regions of the world. (See ODIN.)

For a more particular account of the ./Esir, see separate articles in
this work ; also, THORPE S " Northern Mythology," vol. i., MALLET S
"Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., and PETERSEN S " Nordisk My-
thologi."

.ZEson, ee son, [Gr. Alauv; Fr. ESON, i zoN ,] (Myth.,)
a son of Cretheus, king of lolchos in Thessaly, and the
father of Jason. He was deprived of the kingdom by
his half-brother Pelias.

JEsop, ee sop, [Gr. Alauxof ; Lat. .^SC/PUS ; Fr.
ESOPE, a zop ,] the celebrated fabulist, was born about
619, died 564 B.C. He is supposed to have been a
Phrygian. He was the slave of ladmon the Samian,
who set him free as a reward for his wit and pleasantry.
The Athenians erected a statue in honour of him. The
fables of ^Esop are among the very earliest compositions
of this kind, and probably have never been surpassed
for point and brevity, as well as for the practical good
sense which they display. It should, however, be re
membered that in most of the popular collections of
fables which go under /Esop s name a large proportion
are spurious, and perhaps all have been more or less
modified by the translator or compiler. Phasdrus says,
"/Esopo ingentem statuam posuere Attici,
Servumque cpllocarunt sterna in basi
Patere honoris scirent ut cunctis viam."*

See SUIDAS, "^Esopus;" BACHET DE MEZIRIAC, "Vie d Fisope,"
1632; MANOEL MENDES, " Vida y Fabu!as de Esopo," 1603; BENT -
LEY, "Dissertatio in ^Esopi Fabulas;" A WESTERMANN, "Vita
,/Esopi," 1845; "/Esopi Leben und auserlesene Fabeln," Nuremberg,
1747; M. PLANUDES, "Vita yEsopi," 1505 ; CLINTON, "Fasti Hel-

74.7.
leinci, vol. i.

_33sopus, e-so pus, (Ci.omus,) the most eminent
tragic actor of Rome, was a friend of Cicero, who speaks
of him as an old man in 55 B.C. At this date he made
his last appearance on the stage. He was grave, digni
fied, and impassioned, but less versatile and graceful
than Roscius, his contemporary. He is styled gravis
by Horace.

* " The Athenians erected a great statue to .-"Esop, and placed [him
who was] a slave on an eternal pedestal, that [men] might know that
the road to glory was open to all."

as k; c as .r; g hard; g asy ; G, 11, K, guttural; N, nasal: K, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

jETHELRED

AFZEL1US

.ffithelred. See ETHELRKD.

.ZEtherius, e-^ee re-us, [AiOepiaf,] a Greek architect,
who flourished about 500 A.D., and bui t an edifice, called
"Calchis," at Constantinople.

.Sthicus or Ethicus, eth e-kus, the supposed au
thor of an ancient " Cosmography" of uncertain elate,
written in barbarous Latin, consisting of three treatises
on Geography, one of which is by some ascribed to Ju
lius Honorius, and another is found in Orosius, forming
the second chapter of his history. In some MSS. he is
surnamed Istcr, a native of Istria.

JEthra, ee thra, [Gr. AlOpa; Fr. ETHRA, ;VtR3 ,]
(Myth.,) a daughter of Pittheus, was a wife of /Egeus,
and the mother of Theseus. She was taken as a cap
tive to Sparta by Castor and Pollux, and became a ser
vant of Helen.

Aetion, a-ee te-on, [ Am wv,] an eminent Greek
painter of antiquity, who is supposed to have lived in
the early part of the second century. His most cele
brated work was a painting of the marriage of Alexander
the Great and Roxana, which, it is said, exhibited the
most exquisite skill.

Aetius, a-ec shc^us, sometimes improperly written
^Etius, a Roman ^general, born near the end of the
fourth century. For many years he successfully de
fended Gaul against the encroachments of the barba
rians. In 451, when Attila the Hun had besieged and
was on the point of taking Orleans, the approach of the
combined armies of Aetius and Theodoric obliged him
to raise the siege ; and, these generals having followed
the Huns in their retreat to the plains of Chalons, a
great but indecisive battle was fought, in which 300,000
men are said to have been slain. Soon after, Attila
retreated beyond the Rhine. But the emperor Valen-
tinian, having become jealous of the fame and influence
of Aetius, slew him with his own hand in 454. The
emperor, it is said, asked a Roman if he had done well
in killing Aetius. He replied, " I do not know ; but
I think you have cut off your right hand with your left."

See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" JOR-
NANDES, " De Rebus Geticis."

Aetius, a-ee she-us, written also, but incorrectly,
.Sltius, [ Aertof,] a Greek physician, who is supposed to
have lived at Amida about the end of the fifth century.
He wrote a work on medicine, divided into sixteen
books, which is extant, and possesses great merit.

Aetius surnamed THE ATHEIST, a heresiarch of the
fourth century, who favoured the doctrine of the Arians,
and taught fatalism. He wrote a work in defence of
his doctrines, and had a number of followers, called
Aetians.

Aettenkover or Attenkover, et ten-ko ver, (JO
SEPH ANTON,) a German historian, wrote a "History of
the Dukes of Bavaria." Died at Munich in 1775.

Afer, a fer, (DoMiTlUS,) a distinguished Roman orator,
who flourished in the reigns of the emperors Tiberius
and Caligula. He was born at Nimes, (Nemausus,) in
Gaul, 15 B.C., and died 60 A.D. He was the preceptor
of Quintilian, (by whom his oratory was highly extolled,)
and was made consul by Caligula.

Afesa, ft-fa sa, (PiETRO,) an eminent Italian painter,
who flourished about the middle of the seventeenth cen
tury. He was born in Basilicata, a province of Naples.

Affaitati, af-fi-ta tee, (FoRTUNio,) an Italian of the
sixteenth century, who wrote a work on astronomy and
natural philosophy, (1549.) He was drowned in the
Thames, England, about 1550.

Affelman, 3.f fel-man, (JOHANN,) a German theolo
gian, born at Soest in 1588, was professor at Rostock,
where he died in 1624.

Affichard, 1 , la- fc shSu , (THOMAS,) a French dram
atist and romance-writer, born in 1698; died in 1753.

Afflitto, af-flet to, (GIOVANNI MARIA,) a Neapolitan
monk, who wrote a "Treatise on Fortifications." Died
in 167^.

Afflitto, d , daf-fl6t to, (EuSTACHio,) an Italian Do
minican, wrote " Memoirs of the Writers of the King
dom of Naples," (" Memorie degli Scrittori del Regno di
Napoli,") 2 vols., 1792, (unfinished.) Died in 1790.

Afflitto, d , (MATTEO,) [in Latin, MATTH^E US DE
AFFLIC TIS,"] an eminent Italian lawyer, was born in

Naples in 1448. He became professor of civil and canon
law in the University of Naples in 1469. He wrote a
number of works, all on the subject of law. Died in 1524.

Affo, af fo, (IRENEO,) an Italian historian, philologist,
and antiquary, bom at Busseto, in the duchy of Parma,
in 1741 ; died about 1800. His works are very numer
ous : they relate chiefly to the antiquities and history,
both literary and political, of his native country, Parma.
He is regarded as one of the most eminent Italian critics
and philologists that the last century produced.

Affonso. See ALFONSO.

Affre, tfR, (DEMS AUGUSTE,) Archbishop of Paris,
born at Saint-Rome-de-Tarn in 1793. He was appointed
canon titular and vicar-general at Paris in 1834. Hav
ing become Archbishop of Paris in 1840, he distinguished
himself by his virtues. During the insurrection of June,
1848, he made a noble effort to arrest the carnage. Thu
troops having at his request suspended their fire, he ad
vanced towards the insurgents, preceded by M. Albert,
who wore the dress of a workman and carried a green
branch. He began to address the insurgents, who,
hearing the report of a gun, and suspecting treachery,
opened a fire on the Garde Mobile, and he was mortally
wounded. He left, besides several religious works, an
"Essay on the Egyptian Hieroglyphics," (1834.)

See ABBE CRUICE, "Vie de Denis Auguste Affre," 184 .); DENIS
E. AFFRE, "Biographic de D. A. Affre," 1848 ; E. GOURDON, " Bio
graphic authentique de i Archeveque de Paris, D. A. Affre," 1848.

Affrikan, af-fre-kan , (a corruption of Africanus,) the
name by which Chaucer designates SCIPIO AFRICANUS
the elder. (See the "Assembly of Foules.")

Affry, t fite/, (Louis,) of a Swiss family, was born at
Versailles in 1713. In 1755 he was sent as French min
ister to the Hague. He afterwards became colonel of
the Swiss guards under Louis XVI. In 1792 he was
imprisoned by the revolutionists ; on being released, he
retired to Switzerland. Died in 1798.

Affry, (Louis AUGUSTE PHILIPPE,) COUNT, a son of
the preceding, was born at Friburg in 1743. He was a
lieutenant-general in the French army; but after the mas
sacre of 1792, in which he lost a brother, he retired to
Friburg. He afterwards became Landjinann or chief
of the Helvetic Confederacy, as established in 1803.
Died in 1810.

Afliacker, afhak er, (GILES,) a Dutch theologian,
born at Vreeswyk, lived about 1600.

A-fra m-us, (Lucius,) a Roman comic poet and
orator, who flourished about 100 B.C. Scarcely anything
of his writings has been preserved.

A-fra m-us or Afra nius Ne pos, (Lucius,) an ad
herent of. Cneius Pompcy, was killed in Africa by the
soldiers of Caesar, 46 i:.c.

Afrasiab, a-fra-se-ll/, a semi-fabulous king of ancient
Persia, who, though born in Tartary, (Turan,) claimed to
be a direct descendant of the famous Ferccdoon, (Feri-
dun.) He is said, with an army of Tartars, to have in
vaded Persia, which he conquered after an obstinate
resistance and for many years ruled with a rod of iron.
The people, exasperated by his tyranny, rose in rebel
lion, and, headed by Zal, (the father of Roostum,) drove
out Afrasiab and restored the lawful line of Persian
kings to the throne. Afrasiab is supposed to have lived
about 1000 years before the Christian era.

Africanus. See SCIPIO AFRICANUS.

Africanus, Leo. See LEO, JOHN.)

Af-ii-ca nus, (SF.XTUS C/ECILIUS,) a Roman jurist,
who is supposed to have lived in the second century.

Africanus, (Si XTUs UJLIUS,) |Fr. SEXTE Jin.ics
AFRICAIN, sSxt zhiil ffRe kaN ,1 a Christian writer, who
lived in the early part of the third century. He was a
man of extensive learning, and wrote a hislury of the
world from the creation to the year 22 1 A. P. He fixes
the date of the creation 5499 years H.C., and the birth
of Christ three years earlier than the ordinary computa
tion. The era thus fixed is known as the historical era,
or that of the Alexandrian historians. He is supposed
to have died in 232 A.n.

Af-ze li-us, [Sw. pron. af-tsTT le-us,] (Ar&gt;AM,) a Swed
ish botanist, born in 1750. He was a pupil of Linnreus.
Having visited England in 1789, he was appointed
botanist to the Sierra Leone Company. In 1792 he lef*

a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mt; n5t; good; ir&gt;

AFZELIUS

AGASSIZ

London for Africa, and returned in 1794 with collections
of plants from the regions which he visited. In 1812 he
became professor of dietetics and materia medica in the
University of Upsal, an office which he held till his death
in 1836. Most of the writings of Afzelius are in the form
of papers contributed to different scientific periodicals.

Aizelius, (Akviu AUGUST,) a Swedish historical
writer, born in 1785. Among his works is "Legendary
History of the Swedish People," ("Svenska Folkets
Sagoluifder," 1839-43.)

Afzelius, (JoilAN,) a Swedish chemist, born in 1753,
was a brother of Adam, noticed above. He became pro
fessor of chemistry at Upsal. Died in 1837.

Ag a-bus, a Christian prophet in the time of the
apostles. (See Acts xi. 28, and xxi. 10.)

Ag-a-me des [ A) //?/%] and Trophonius, two
ancient architects of Greece, who are supposed to have-
lived in the time of Homer. See TROPHONIUS.

Ag-a-mem non, [ A;ae/ wr,] the son of Atreus, King
of Myccnse, and brother of Menelaus, was appointed
generalissimo of the Greek forces during the Trojan
war. On his return to his native country, Argolis, after
the destruction of Troy, he was murdered by his wife
Clytcmnestra and her paramour yEgisthus, who had
possessed the kingdom in his absence. He was the
father of Orestes, Elcctra, and Iphigeni a. He and his
brother Menelaus were often called ATRI D/E.
See HOMER S "Iliad;" ./ESCHYLUS, "Agamemnon."
Aga- (or Agha-) Mohammed, a ga mo-ham med,
the founder of the present dynasty of Persia, was born
in 1734. He was an artful as well as a warlike prince.
Commencing his career about 1780, he overran in a few
years a large part of Persia, also Georgia and Khoras-
san. lie was assassinated in 1797.

Aganduru, a-gan-doo roo, or Aganduro, a-gan-
doo ro, (RooRico MAURICIO,) a Spanish missionary,
who laboured in Japan about 1640. He wrote a "His
tory of the Moluccas and Philippine Islands."

Ag-a-pe tus, [Gr. \ya-r&gt;-i&gt;(; ; Fr. AGAPET, S gf pV,]
a deacon of the principal church of Constantinople, lived
in the sixth century. He is the author of a work ad
dressed to the emperor Justinian in 527, containing
many excellent precepts, religious, moral, and political.
Agapetus I., an archdeacon of Rome, who was ele
vated to the Roman see in 535. Died at Constanti
nople in 536.

Agapetus II. was raised to the Roman see in 946.
He is supposed to have died about 955.
Agar. See HAGAR.

Agar, 3 glr , or d Agar, dS gSR , (JACQUES,) a native
of Paris, born in 1640. He became court painter and
chamberlain to Christian V., King of Denmark, and died
at Copenhagen in 1716.

Agar, fgaV, (JEAN ANTOINE MICHEL,) Count of
Mosbourg, a French administrator, born near Cahors in
1771. He was chosen a member of the legislative body
in 1804, and became minister of finances to Murat, Duke
of Berg, in 1806. Murat having ascended the throne of
Naples, Agar administered the finances of that kingdom
with success from 1809 to 1815. He was elected to the
French Chamber of Deputies in 1830, and became a
peer of France in 1837. Died in 1844.

Agar, a-gaR , (PEDRO,) a Spanish officer, born in
America, was one of the three members of the regency
chosen in 1808 by the Cortes after the abdication of
Charles IV. His conduct was prudent and moderate.
He was banished by the absolutists in 1814. On the
revolution of 1820 he became president of the Junta of
Galicia. He resigned in July of that year. Died about
1840.

Agarde or Agard, i-gard , (ARTHUR,) an eminent
Knglish archivist and antiquary, born at Foston about
1540, became one of the deputy chamberlains in the
Exchequer in 1570. He contributed several treatises to
the Society of Antiquaries, which were published by
flearne. Died in i6iv

Sec HKARNR, "Curious Discourses."
Aeardh, a gaRd, (KARI, Anoi.i H,) a Swedish natural
ist, w;is born at Bastad, or Bostad, in Scania, in 1785.
lie became professor of botany and rural economy at
Lund about 1812, and was ordained a priest in 1816.

Besides several works on theology and economy, he
published many remarkable treatises on botany, among
which we notice "Species of Sea-weeds," ("Species Al-
garum," 1820-28,) "Systematic Arrangement of Sea
weeds," (" Systema Algarum," 1824,) and a "Manual of
Botany," (2 vols., 1830-31.) He was appointed Bishop
of Karlstad in 1834. Died in October, 1862.

See " Biographiskt Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man."

A-ga si-as, [Gr. Aj aut ric,] a sculptor of Ephesus, who
is supposed to have lived about 400 B.C. He was the
author of a statue called the Fighting Gladiator, a fine
specimen of ancient art, discovered at Antium (where
the Apollo Belvidere was also found) in the beginning
of the seventeenth century.

Agassiz, S gS see or a-gas siz, (Louis,) a Swiss natur
alist of great eminence, was born in the parish of Mot-
tier, near the lake of Neufchatel, in 1807. His father was
a Protestant divine. Young Agassiz studied the medical
sciences at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich, where he
graduated about 1830. In 1827 he was selected by Martins
to describe the species of fishes which Spix had brought
from Brazil, and on wliich he produced an able work in
Latin, (1829-31.) He had previously, during the college
vacations, visited many parts of EuVope to study the fossil
and fresh-water fishes. In 1832 or 33 he was appointed
professor of natural history or zoology at Neufchatel.
He published a " Natural History of the Fresh-Water
Fishes of Central Europe," (1839,) and "Researches on
Fossil Fishes," (14 livraisons, or 5 vols., with 311 plates,
1832-42,) a work of high order, in which he made im
portant changes in classification.

The Transactions of the British Association, the " An-
nales des Sciences Naturelles," and other journals, con
tain many contributions from Agassiz on fossil fishes and
on geology. He propounded some new and remarkable
ideas on geology and the agency of glaciers, in his capital
work entitled "Etudes sur les Glaciers," (1840,) and in
his "Systeme Glaciere," (1847.)

In 1846 he visited the United States on a scientific
mission, and about the end of 1847 was induced to ac
cept the professorship of zoology and geology at Har
vard University, Cambridge. About 1854 he declined
the offer of a chair of natural history in the University
of Edinburgh. He has delivered several courses of lec
tures in Boston, and has given a decided impulse to the
study of his favourite sciences in the New World. M.
Agassiz favours the theory that the human race is not
descended from a single pair, and discredits that of or
ganic development, or metamorphosis, which was main
tained by Lamarck and others. In 1865 he went to
Brazil with a corps of assistants, and explored the Lower
Amazon and its tributaries with reference to natural his
tory, geology, etc. It is stated that he discovered more
than 1800 new species of fishes in that region.

Among his other works are a " Monography of Living
and Fossil Echinodermata,"( 1838-42,) "Outlines of Com
parative Physiology," (1848,) "Principles of Zoology,"
in conjunction with Dr. A. A. Gould, (2d edition, 1851,)
"Contributions to the Natural History of the United
States," to be completed in ten volumes, quarto, of
which the first two were published in 1857 ; and a " Jour
ney in Brazil," (1868.) Mr. Agassiz became in 1868 a
non-resident professor at the Cornell University at Ith
aca, New r York.

"In the operation of his [Agassiz s] mind," says one
of the ablest of American critics, "there is no predomi
nance of any single power, but the intellectual action of
what we feel to be a powerful nature. When he ob
serves, his whole mind enters into the act of observation ; .
just as, when he reasons, his whole mind enters into the
act of reasoning. . . . He is not merely a scientific
thinker ; he is a scientific force ; and no small portion of
the immense influence he exerts is due to the energy,
intensity, and geniality which distinguish the nature of
the man. In personal intercourse he inspires as well as
informs, communicates not only knowledge, but the love
of knowledge. . . . He is at once one of the most domi
nating and one of the most sympathetic of men, having
the qualities of leader and companion combined in singu
lar harmony." (See WHIPPLE S "Character and Charac
teristic Men," Boston, 1866.)

as k: 9 as s: g hard; g asy ; o, n, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (Jd^See Explanations, p. 23.)

AGATHA

AGESILAUS

Ag a-tha, SAINT, [Fr. SAINTE-AGATHE, saN ti git ,]
a vii-gi.i martyr of Sicily in the middle of the third cen
tury. She was put to death by Quintianus, Proconsul
of Sicily, in 251.

See Mrs. JAMESON, "Sacred and Legendary Art;" TIU.EMONT,
" Memoires ecc.i.s astiques, etc.

Ag-a-than ge-lu3, an Armenian historian, lived about
320 A.f&gt;., and was secretary to King Tiridates.

Ag-a-thar -ehi-des [ Ayoap^ %] or Ag-a-thar -
ehu3, a Greek writer and grammarian, born at Cnidos,
lived about 130 B.C. He was guardian to the young
king of Egypt, probably Ptolemy Soter II., who became
king 117 H.C.

Ag-a-tliar -ehus, [Gr. A&gt; u(top,w ; Fr. AGATHARQUE,
S gt tSRk ,] a Greek painter, who lived about 480 B.C.,
is considered as the first artist who applied the laws of
perspective in painting. Vitruvius says that he made a
scene for , Kschylus at Athens. From the context it is
inferred that a painted perspective scene is signified.

Agatharchus, a Greek painter, born at Samos, lived
about 420 B.C. He was patronized by Alcibiades, who
once confined him in his house until he had painted cer
tain pictures which he had ordered. Plutarch states
that he boasted of his facility and rapidity in the pres
ence of Zeuxis, who reproved him by a simple remark
that he (Zeuxis) painted slowly.
Agatliarque. See AGATHARCHUS.
Agathe. See AGATHA.

Ag-a-them e-rus, [Gr. Ayaftyppo?/ Fr. AGATHEMERE,
I gyta main ,] the author of a small work on geography
in Greek, is supposed to have lived about 200 A.D.

A-ga thi-as, [ Ayaflt of,] surnamed ASIANUS, a-she-a -
nus, a Greek historian and poet, born at Myrina, in Asia
Minor, in the early part of the sixth century. He studied
at Alexandria, and afterwards settled at Constantinople,
where he died about 580. He commenced a history of
his own time, but left it unfinished. His history and
some of his epigrams are extant ; his other poems are
lost.

Ag-a-thl nus, [ Aja&vof,] an eminent Greek physician,
born at Sparta, lived in the latter half of the first cen
tury. He was a pupil of Athenreus, from whose doc
trines, however, he dissented in many points, and founded
a school or sect of his own.
Agatho. See AGATHON.
Agathocle. See AGATHOCLES.
A-gath-o-cle a, [Gr. \-/ado KAeia ; Fr. AGATHOCLEE,
S gS to kla ,] a mistress of Ptolemy Philopator, who, with
her brother Agathocles, obtained an absolute ascend
ency over that king. After his death, which for a time
was kept secret, Agathocles ruled in the name of the
young prince ; but his tyranny became so intolerable that
the people rose in revolt, and killed him, his sister, and
also his mother (Enanthe, who had been the first, if not
the principal, instigator of his crimes.

A-gath/o-cles, [Gr. AyadoK /j/s ; Fr. AGATHOCLE,
a"g3 tok K,] a tyrant of Syracuse, who reigned from 317
to 289 B.C. Born at Thermi, in Sicily, he learned the
trade of a potter. Being distinguished, however, for
bodily strength and beauty, he was raised to the military
rank of chiliarch. He afterwards married a rich widow,
and became in consequence one of the wealthiest of the
Syracusans. As an officer he was not only brave and
fertile in resources, but he was distinguished for readi
ness and boldness as an orator. In 317 B.C. he caused
all the men of note opposed to him in Syracuse to be
massacred, and became tyrant of the city. The subse
quent career of Agathocles is marked with a variety of
fortune, in which the boldness, cruelty, and treachery of
his character are conspicuous. His death, as related by
Diodorus Siculus, is remarkable. His grandson Archag-
athus, aspiring to the succession, corrupted a favourite
of his grandfather, named Macnon, who gave him a pois
oned toothpick, by which his mouth became incurably
gangrened. Being speechless, he was placed on a funeral
pile and burnt while still alive, (289 B.C.,) in his seventy-
second year.

See R. PKRRINCIIIEF, "The Sicilian Tyrant ; or, The Life of Agath
ocles," London, 8vo, 1661 ; DIODORUS SICULUS, "History."

Agath ocles OF CYZ ICUS, a Greek historian, lived

probably about 100 or 150 B.C. He wrote a "History
of Cyzicus," which is lost.

Agathocles OF EGYPT. See AGATHOCLEA.

Agathodaemon, ag a-tho-dee mon, [Gr. \yaOo6ai-
fj.uv,] OF ALEXANDRIA, an ancient geographer and map-
maker of an uncertain date. He probably lived after
200 A.D.

Ag a-thon or Ag a-tho, [ AyoOuv,] an eminent Greek
tragic poet, born at Athens about 450 B.C., was a con-
:emporary and friend of Plato and Euripides. He gained
the prize in tragedy at a public festival in 417 B.C. His
works are praised by Plato and Aristotle. He was rather
fond of antithesis and sophistical subtleties. Only a few
fragments of his works remain. Died about 400 B.C.

See BENTLEY, "Dissertation on the Epistles of Euripides."

Agathon, a monk, native of Sicily, was raised to
the Roman see in 679, and died in 681 A.D.

Agay^d .dt gi , (FKANC.OIS MARiEBruno bRii no ,)
COUNT, a French jurist, born at Besanson in 1722. Died
in 1805.

Agazzari, a-gat-sa ree, (AGOSTINO,) an Italian musi-
ian, native of Sienna. Died about 1640.

A-gel a-das, [ A;eA(Sac,] a Grecian sculptor, who lived
at Argos about 500 B.C. lie was the master of Phidias.

Agelet, azh KV, or d Agelet, dfzh LV, (JOSEPH Le
Paute leh p5t,) a French astronomer, born in 1751.
He became professor of mathematics in the Ecole Mili-
taire in 1777. He accompanied La Perouse on his voy
age of discovery in 1785, and perished with him in 1788.
(See LA PEROUSE.)

Agelli, a-jel lee, [Lat. AGEL LIUS,] (ANTONIO,) a dis
tinguished Italian commentator, born at Sorrento in
1532. He was made Bishop of Acerno in 1593, and died
in 1608. He wrote a commentary on the Psalms, the
Lamentations of Jeremiah, and many other parts of
Scripture.

Agellio, a-jel le-o, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter,
born at Sorrento. He worked at Rome in the early part
of the seventeenth century, and excelled in landscapes.
He assisted Roncalli and other artists in the figures and
the landscapes of their paintings.

Agellius. See GELLIUS, AULUS.

Ag el-noth, [Lat. AGELNO THUS,] also called Eth -
el-noth, an archbishop of Canterbury, who lived in the
early part of the eleventh century, and died in 1038.
He was one of the principal advisers of the Danish king
Canute.

See HOOK, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. iii.
chap. iii.

A-ge iior, [Gr. Ayf/vup; Fr. AGENOR, t zha noR ,] a
fabulous king of Phoenicia, regarded as a son of Nep
tune, a brother of Belus, and the father of Cadmus,
Phcenix, Phineus, and Europa.

Agenor, a brave Trojan warrior, was a son of An-
tenor. According to Homer, he wounded Achilles, and
was rescued from him by Apollo.

Ager, t zha , [in Latin, AGE RIUS,] (NICOLAS,) a
French botanist, born in Alsace in 1568, wrote a treatise
" On Vegetable Life," (" De Anima Vegetiva," 1629.)
Died in 1634.

Ag-e-san der, [Gr. \y^aavdpof; Fr. AGESANDRK,
t zha z&Ndk ,] a sculptor of Rhodes, mentioned by Pliny
as one of the three artists who executed a group of La-
ocoon and his sons, which was in the palace of Titus at
Rome. This same group, there is reason to believe, is
now in the Vatican. It was accidentally discovered in
1506. The time of Agesander is unknown ; some sup
pose him to have been contemporary with the earlier
Roman emperors.
Agesias. See HEGESIAS.
A-ges i-cles, a king of Sparta, who lived about 600

A-ges-i-la us [Gr. Ayr/o-^aoc; Fr. AGESILAS, t zha -
ze ljis ] I., a king of Sparta, who lived in the ninth
century B.C. He was contemporary with Lycurgus.

Agesilaus II., one of the most distinguished of the
Spartan kings, was a son of Archidamus. He ascended
the throne at the death of his brother Agis in 398 B.C.,
and reigned thirty-seven years in the most eventful pe
riod in the history of Sparta. In the second year of his
reign he commanded an expedition into Persia, in which,

i, e, I, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, I, o, li, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nfit; good; moon;

AGES I POL IS

JGNES1

by his generosity and courtesy, as well as by his success Aglaia. See CHARITES.

as a general, he won over to his cause many of the sub- ; Ag-la o-phon, [ Ay/lao^wi ,] a painter, native of Tha-

jects of Artaxerxes. He even contemplated the con- sos, (a Grecian island,) supposed to have lived about 500

quest of the Persian empire ; but the accomplishment of \ B.C. He was the father of Polygnotus the paintei.

this great scheme was prevented by a hostile confederacy ! Aglaophon, a Greek painter, supposed to have been

of the Greeks at home. lie was summoned home by : a descendant of the preceding, lived about 416 B.C. He

the Ephori about 394 B.C. In the subsequent contest ; painted a picture of Alcibiades.

between the Spartans on the one side, and the Argives, ; Agliata, al-ya ta, (GIOVANNI,) a distinguished Sicilian

Thebans, Athenians, and Corinthians on the other, Agesi- &lt; lawyer, born at Palermo, held several high offices under

laus, if not always successful, at least fully justified the | the government. Died in 1675.

high opinion which his countrymen entertained of his ; Aglietti, al-yet tee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian physician,

statesmanship and military skill. His vigilance and born in 1757. Died in 1836.

energy saved the city of Sparta, which was menaced by
Kpaminondas in 362. He was not present at the battle
of Leuctra, where the Spartans were defeated in 371.
I le died about 361 i:.c., being more than eighty years old.

See "Life of Agesilaus," by PLUTARCH, who compares him with
1 ompey; XENOPHON, "Agesilaus" and " Hellenica ;" CORNELIUS
\EHOS, "Agesilaus;" GROTE, "Hisiory of Greece," vol. ix. chaps.
Ixxiii.-lxxiv. ; THIRI.WALL, " History of Greece ;" CAUER, " Ques-
tioiuim de Fontibus ad Agesilai Historiam pertinentibus," Pars I.,
lireslau, 1847.

Ag-e-sip o-lis, [ A}7;cri7ro/l(f,] a Spartan king, who
ascended the throne as colleague of Agesilaus in 394.
Died in 380 n.c.

There were several other kings of this name.

Agezio or Agesio, 4-ga ze-o, (THADDEUS,) a Bohe
mian, born at Prague in 1525, wrote on physiognomy.

Ag gas or Au gus, (ROBERT,) an English landscape-
painter, who lived in the reign of Charles I. Died in
1679, aged about 60.

Aggee. See HAGGAI.

Aggenus Urbicus, ad-jee nus ur be-kus, a Latin
writer on agriculture, who probably lived in the time of
the emperor Vespasian.

Agha-Mohammed.

See AGA-MOHAMMED.

Agier, a zhc-a , (PIERRE JEAN,) a French judge, born
in Paris in 1748. He was president of the revolutionary
tribunal in 1795, when Fouquier-Tinville and his accom
plices were condemned to death, and became vice-pres
ident of the tribunal of appeal in Paris in 1802. He
published, besides several legal works, a new version
of the Hebrew Prophets, (11 vols., 1820-23.) Died in
1823.

Agila, aj e-la, or Agilan, aj-e-lan , a Gothic king of
Spain, who began to reign in 549, and was murdered in
554 A.D.

Agiles, d , di zhel or df zhe leV, (RAYMOND,) Canon
of Puy, followed the Count of Toulouse to Palestine, and
wrote a " History of the Crusade of 1095."

Ag-i-lul fus or Agilul phus, [Fr. AGILULPHE, t /hc"-
lulf/,] a Longobard duke of Turin, who became King of
the Longobards, in 590, by marrying Theudclinda, the
widow of King Autaris or Autarich. Through her influ
ence he embraced the Catholic faith, and induced many
of his nobles to do the same. He died in 616 A.D. From
the reign of Agilulfus may be dated the commencement
of civilization among the Longobards.

Agincourt. See D AGINCOURT.

Agis, a jis, [*Aytf.] There were four kings of Sparta of
this name. The first began to reign about 1060 B.C.
The second became king 427 B.C., and reigned twenty-
eight years, during a great part of the Peloponnesian war.
lie defeated the Athenians and their allies in a great
battle at Mantinea, about 414 B.C. He died in 399 B.C.
Agis III. ascended the throne in 338 and died 331 B.C.,
being contemporary with Alexander the Great. Agis
IV. began to reign 244 B.C. He attempted to restore
the ancient Spartan discipline, and the simplicity of
manners which had prevailed under the earlier Spartan
kings ; but the nation was too deeply sunk in effeminacy
and corruption. Agis became a martyr to his virtuous
ambition. He was condemned by the Ephori for an at
tempt to subvert the laws of his country, and was stran
gled 240 B.C. He met his death with a heroism worthy
of the glorious cause in which he had been engaged.

See ZANNINI, " Biografia di F. Aglietti," Padua, 1836.

Ag H-oii-by, (JOHN,) an English divine, born in Cum
berland about 1568. He was chaplain to Queen Eliza
beth, and one of the translators of the New Testament
for the English Bible authoVized by James I. Died in
1610.

Agnani, di, de an-ya nee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
jurist, born about 1390, was professor of law at Bologna.
Died in 1457.

Agneaux. See AIGNEAUX.

Agnelli, an-yel lee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian Jesuit, who
wrote several theological works. Born in 1621 ; died
in 1 706.

Agnelli,(jACOB, or JACOPO,) an eminent Italian Jesuit,
born at Ferrara in 1701. He was professor of eloquence,
and afterwards of medicine, in the University of Ferrara.
He wrote a number of poems, some of which possess
great merit. He died in 1798, aged more than ninety-
six years.

Agiiello, an-yel lo, (ANDREA,) or Ag-nel lus, (AN
DREAS,) an abbot of Ravenna in the latter half of the
ninth century, wrote a history or chronicle of Ravenna.
His work is valuable as illustrating an important portion
of ecclesiastical and civil history.

Agiien, tn ySN , (JEROME,) a Dutch painter, born at
Bois-le-Duc about the middle of the fifteenth century.
He worked in Spain. Died in 1530.

Agnes, ag ncz, [Ger. pron. ag nfis,] a German em
press, who, after the death of her husband, Henry III.,
was regent during the minority of her son, Henry IV.
She died in 1057.

Agnes OF AUSTRIA, the daughter of Albert I., Duke of
Austria, (afterwards King of Germany,) was remarkable
for the atrocious cruelty with which she revenged the
death of her father, murdered in 1308. Many persons
were put to a death of torture on mere suspicion, and a
multitude of persons, innocent in all probability, were
beheaded by her order. She died in 1364.

Agnes, ag nez, SAINT, a Roman virgin of noble
family, who, according to the legend, suffered martyrdom
under Diocletian in 303 A. D., when only thirteen years of

age.

See Mrs. JAMESON, "Sacred and Legendary Art ;" BAILLET,
" Vies des Saints ;" J. A. MAKTIGNY, "Notice Historique, etc. sur
le Culte de Sainte Agues."

Agnes (ag nez or aiv yes ) de Meranie, deh ma -
ra ne , Queen of France, was married to Philippe Au-
guste in 1196. The censure of the church, because he
had divorced Ingelburge to marry Agnes, induced the
king to discard the latter. Died in I2OI.

Agnes Sorel. See SOREI..

Agnesi, an-ya see, (MARIA Gaetana ga-i-ta na,)
an Italian lady of wonderful intellectual powers and ac
quirements, born at Milan in 1718. When she was only
twenty years of age, she was able to discourse in a great
number of different languages on abstruse questions of
mathematics and philosophy. Her Latin is said to have
been remarkably pure and correct. She published, in
1748, her "Instituzioni Analitiche," ("Analytical Institu
tions,") a treatise on algebra, including the differential
and integral calculus,and displaying wonderful knowledge
as well as judgment. " \Ve cannot," says a recent
critic, "take leave of a work which does so much honour

See PLUTARCH, "Life of A-is;" T..IKLWAU, "History of | to female genius, without earnestly recommending the
Greece," vol. viii. chap. Ixii. ; DAKRAU, " Histoire d Agis IV, Roi 1 perusal of it to those who believe that great talents are
de Lacedemone," 8vo, 1817. j bestowed by nature exclusively on men." (See review

A gi-us (or Agio, a jo) de Solda nis, da sol-da - . of Maria G. Agnesi s "Analytical Institutions" in the
ness, (PlETRO,) an Italian antiquary, born in the isle of j " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1804.) In 1750,

Gozzo. Died in 1760.

c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; o, 1 1, K, guttural; N, wisn*: R, trilled; s as z; t-h as in this.

I during the illness of her father, (who was professor in

Explanations, p. 23.)

AGNESI

AGRICOLA

the University of Bologna,) she supplied his place.
Shortly after this she retired to a nunnery, where she
spent the remainder of her life, and died in 1799-

See PAOLO FRISI, " Elogio Storico di M. Agnesi;" BIAXCA
MILESI-MOJON, " Vita di Mar.a Gaetana Agnesi, 1836.

Agnesi, (MARIA THERESA,) a composer of operas,
born at .Milan about 1724, was a sister of the preceding.

Ag new, (Sir ANDREW,) M.P., a noted Scottish Sab
batarian, born in Wigtonshire in 1793; died in 1849.

See DR. McCRiE s "Life of Sir Andrew Agnew."

Agiiew, QAMES,) a brigadier-general in the British
army in the American Revolution, was killed at the battle
of Germantown in October, 1777.

Agni, ag nl, or Ag iiis,[common Hindoo pron. ug nl or
lig nis ; etymologically allied to the Latin ignis,] the name
of the Hindoo god of lire, lie is sometimes represented
in pictures with two faces, three legs, and seven arms, and
is usually painted of a deep-red colour. His two faces are
supposed to symbolize fire in its two characters benefi
cent (or creative) and destructive. His seven arms have
been conjectured to indicate the seven prismatic colours.
Agni has been called the Hindoo Vulcan ; but he does not
appear anywhere as an artificer, like the Vulcan of classic
mythology, his most prominent characters being those of
a purifier and of a bearer of incense to heaven, becoming
thus a mediator between men on earth and the gods above.

See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon;" KopfEN, " Religion des Buddha,"
p. 5 ; SIR W. JONES on "The Gods of Greece, Italy, and India, in
"Asiatic Researches," vol. i. p. 264.

Ag-nod I-ge [ AJTO& /O?,] an Athenian woman, who,
disguised in the dress of a man, studied medicine under
HeVophilus, and practised with success, in the third cen
tury H.c. She devoted herself chiefly to midwifery.

Agnolo, d , dan yo-lo, (BACCIO, bat cho,) an eminent
Italian architect and sculptor in wood, was born at Flor
ence in 1460. He was the first who adorned the windows
of mansions and palaces with frontons, or frontispieces.
Among his chief works are the Palazzo Bartolini, (Flor
ence,) and Ihe Villa Borgherini, near Florence. Died in

1543-

See VAS IF.I, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors."

Agnolo, d , (GABRIELE,) a Neapolitan architect, who
designed the Gravina Palace, and the church of Santa
Maria, at Naples. Died in 1510.

Agnolo, d , (GiULiANO,) a son of the preceding, who
followed the profession of his father, both as sculptor
and architect. Died in 1555.

Ag-noii i-des, [Gr. Aypw(5/;c; Fr. AGNONIDE, Sn jo -
n6d ,] an Athenian orator, who induced the Athenians
to put Phocion to death. For this he was afterwards, in
his turn, condemned to die.

Ag o-bard , SAINT, [Fr. pron. saN ti go btR/,) an
archbishop of Lyons in the ninth century, took part with
the sons of Louis le Debonnaire against their father, for
which he was deposed in 835. He was, however, re
stored to his see about 838, on the reconciliation of Louis
and his sons. He died in 840.

See C. B. HUNDESIIAGEM, "De Vita et Scriptis Agobardi," 1831.

Agocchi, a-gok kee, or Agucchio, a-gook ke-o,
(GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a learned Italian ecclesiastic,
born at Bologna in 1570. About 1624, Pope Urban VIII.
appointed him his nuncio to Venice, with the title of
Archbishop of Amasia. Died in 1632.

Ag-o-rac ri-tus, [Gr. Ayoppm&gt;?; Fr. AI.ORACRITE,
3 go rt kRet ,] a famous sculptor, native of Paros, lived
in the fifth century H.c. He was a pupil of Phidias.

Agosti, a-gos tee, (GiULio,) an Italian dramatic poet,
born at Reggio in the latter part of the seventeenth cen
tury. Died young in 1704.

Agostini, a-gos-tee nee, (LlONARDO,) an Italian an
tiquary, born at Sienna, went to Rome about 1623, and
was appointed by Alexander VII. pontifical antiquary.
He published an enlarged edition of Filippo Paruta s
work on the medals of Sicily, (1649,) and another work,
of great merit, on antique gems, "Antique Gems Deline
ated," ("Le Gemme antiche figurate," 1636 and 1657.)

Agostiiii, (MIGUEL.) See AGUSTI.

Agostini, degli, dai yee a-gos-tee nee, (GIOVANNI,)
a learned Italian monk, born at Venice about 1700. He
wrote " Historical and Critical Notices of the Lives and

Works of Venetian Authors," 2 vols., 1754, which is said
to be a valuable work. Died about 1755.

Agostini, degli, (NiccoLo,) a mediocre Italian poet,
born at Venice, flourished in the first half of the six
teenth century. He translated Ovid s " Metamorphoses,"
(1522,) and wrote a continuation of Bojardo s "Orlando
Innamorato," (1538-)

Agostiiio (a-gos-tee no) and Agnolo, an yo-lo, of
Sienna, sculptors and architects, born about 1265, were
brothers, and always worked together. Among their
works were the Palazzo tie Novi, the church of St. Fran
cesco at Sienna, and the tomb of Bishop Guido at
Arezzo, which was designed by Giotto. Died about 1350.

See VASAKI, "Live; of ihe Painters," etc.

Agostiiio surnamcd VKNEZIANO, va-net-se-a no, or
the " Venetian," a celebrated Italian engraver, also calico
Augusti nus de Mu si.s, and in French Augustin,
(o giis taN ,) was born about 1490. He was a pupil of
Marcantonio Raimondi, for whom he worked in Rome.
He engraved several works after Raphael and Giulio
Romano. Some of his works are dated 1536.

See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc.

Agostiiio, sometimes called Agostiiio dalle Pro-
spettive dal la pRo-spet-tee va, (which may be trans
lated " Perspective Agostiiio,") an Italian painter, who
flourished in the first half of the sixteenth century. He
was distinguished for his skill in perspective.

Agostiiio, (PAOLO,) an eminent Italian musician of
the seventeenth century, was chapel-master of St. Peter s,
Rome. Died about 1660.

Agoub, a godb , (JOSEPH,) a native of Cairo, in Egypt,
born in 1795. His parents removed to France when he
was about seven years old. In 1820, or soon after, he-
was appointed professor of Arabic at Paris, but, having
been deprived of this situation in 1831, he died the next
year, it is said, of a broken heart.

AgOUlt, t gOC/, (CHARLES CONSTANCE CESAR LOUT

JOSEPH,) born at Grenoble in 1747, became Bishop of
Pamiers in 1787. He took part in political affairs, and
was one of the friends of Louis XVI. whom that king
consulted just before his flight to Varenncs. I le pub
lished several works on finance. Died in Paris in 1824.

Agoult, (WILLIAM,) a French poet of the twelfth
century. He was a gentleman of the household of Al
fonso X., King of Castile, and has been styled the chief
and father of troubadours. Died in 1181.

Agoult, d , cll goo , (MARIE de Flavigny deh
flfven ye ,) COUNTESS, a French authoress, who assumed
the name of Daniel Stern, was born at Frankfort-on-the-
Main about 1800. She was married to Count d Agoult
in 1827. She has written several successful novels,
among which is " Nelida," (1845 ) anc l a "History of the
Revolution of 1848," (2 vols., 1851.)

Agraiii, d , dS gRaN , (EusTACHE,) a French warrior,
who went to Palestine in the first crusade with Raymond
of Toulouse, and became Viceroy of Jerusalem. He was
called "The Sword and Shield of Palestine."

Agrate, a-gRa ti, (MARCO Fer.rerio fer-ra re-o,) an
Italian sculptor, lived about the year 1500.

Agreda, de, da a-gRa na, (MARIA,) a Spanish abbess,
born in 1602. She wrote a " Life of the Virgin Mary,"
which Bossuet censured as indecent. Died in 1665.

Agresti, a-gRes tee, (Livio,) an eminent Italian
painter, who died about 1580. He was a native of Forli.
He painted frescos at Rome and Forli. Vasari extols
the grandeur of his style.

Agricola, a-gRik o-la, (CiiRiSTOrn LUDWIG,) an emi
nent German landscape-painter, born at Augsburg (or,
according to some authorities, at Ratisbon) in 1667. He
worked for a long time in Naples, and painted several
views of Southern Italy. Died at Augsburg in 1/19.

A-gric o-la, (CNVEUS JULIUS,) a distinguished Ro
man general, born at Forum Julii, (Krejus,) a Roman
colony in Gaul, A.D. 37. In 62 he married at Rome a
lady of high rank, and the next year went as qurestor to
Asia, under the proconsul Salvins Titianus, where he
distinguished himself by his strict integrity. In 73, Ves
pasian (whose cause Agricola hid early espoused) made
him a patrician, and appointed him governor of Aqui-
tania, which position he held for nearly three years. In
77 he was chosen consul, and not long after was made

AGRICOLA

AGRIPPINA

Governor of Britain, where he subdued the Ordoviccs in
North Wales, and conquered the island of Mona, (An-
glesea.) He adopted a wise and generous policy towards
the Britons, encouraging them to embrace the Roman
customs and dress and to instruct their children in the \
Latin language. He afterwards crossed the Tweed, and
carried his arms (So A.n.) as far as the Frith of Tay,^and
erected a chain of fortresses from the Clyde to the Frith
of Forth. He was soon after recalled by the emperor |
I )omitian, and retired into private life, whither, however, j
the admiration of the people followed him. He died in
93, not without a general suspicion of his having been
poisoned through the jealousy of Domitian. Agricola j
was the father-in-law of the historian Tacitus. (See |
TACITUS.)

See TACITUS, " J. Agricola; Vita ;" DION CASSIUS, " History of
Rome;" HELD, "Commentatio de C. J. Agricola; Vita qua; vulgo
Cornelio Tacito assignatur," Schweidnitz, 1845.

A-gric o-la, (FRANCIS,) a German theologian, born at
Lunen, wrote against the Reformation. Died in 1621.

Agricola, (GEORG,) an eminent mineralogist and
physician, whose proper name was BAUER, was born
at Glauchau, in Saxony, about 1490. He became well
versed in metallurgy and the art of mining. " He was
the first mineralogist," says Cuvier, "who appeared
after the renaissance of the sciences in Europe. He was
to mineralogy what Conrad Gcsncr was to zoology."
His principal works are, " Concerning Ores, (or Mines,)"
("De Re Metallica," 1546,) and "On the Origin and
Causes of Subterranean Things," (" De Ortu et Causis
Subterraneorum.") both written in elegant Latin. Died

!555-

See A. D. RICHTER, "Vita Georgii Agrico .-e," 1755; M. ADAM,
"Vitas Medicorum Germanorum ;" BAYLE, "Historical and Critical
Dictionary;" ERSCH und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopsedie."

Agricola, (GKORG ANDREAS,) a German physician,
born at Ratisbon in 1672. He pretended to have dis
covered a method by which the growth of plants might
be greatly accelerated, and published in 1717 a useful
work on the culture and propagation of plants. Died
about 1738.

Agricola, QOHAN NES AMMO NIUS,) a German phy
sician, who was one of the best commentators on Hip
pocrates and Galen. He became professor of Greek at
Ingolstadt, where he died about 1570.

Agricola, QOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a German musician
and composer, born in Altcnburg in 1720. He com
posed "Achilles," an opera. Died at Berlin in 1774.

Agricola, (Jonx, or JOHANN,) was originally called
JOHN Schneider (shm der) or Schnit ter; but, ac
cording to the usage of that time, he changed his name
into Agricola. Born at Kisleben, in Prussian Saxony,
in 1492, he studied at Wittenberg, where he formed an
intimate friendship with Luther. But from being one of
that great reformer s most active supporters, he after
wards became a bitter opponent. Agricola asserted
that obedience to the Mosaic law was not necessary for
a Christian, that nothing was required but penitence
and faith ; while Luther maintained the necessity of obey
ing the Ten Commandments. The followers of Agricola
were styled Antinomians, ("opposers of the law.") He
died in 1566. Besides writing a great number of theo
logical works, he made a valuable collection of German
proverbs, to which he added a commentary, with numer
ous illustrations.

See UXGKR, "Dissertatiode Johanne Agricola," 1732; B. KORDES,
"J. Agricola aus Eisleben," 1817; DE THOU, " Histoire," book v. ;
KKSCH und GRUHHK, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."

Agricola, (MARTIN,) an eminent musician, born in
Silesia about 1486; died in 1556.

Agricola, ri-guik o-la, (MICHAEL), an early Swedish
reformer of the sixteenth century, who translated the
New Testament into the Finnish tongue. Died in 1577.
Agricola, ( RUDOLPH,) an eminent Dutch scholar,
born near Groningen, in Friesland, in 1443. In 1476 he
went to Italy, where he studied Greek, and afterwards
excited the admiration of the Italians (who had previously
regarded the Germans as barbarians) by his various ac
complishments. In 1482 he became professor at Heidel
berg, where he died in 1485. He was highly eulogized
by Krasinus. His influence contributed greatly to dif
fuse a taste for Grecian literature among the Germans.

"He was," says Guizot, ("Biographic Universelle,") "a
good painter, a good writer, a good poet, and a learned
philologer." His greatest work is "De Inventione Dia-
lectica."

See PHILIP MELANCHTHON, " Orationes II., prior de Vita Rud.
Agricola;," etc., 1539; T. K. TRESLING, " Vita et Merita Rud. Agric-
o ;e," 1830; EKSCH und GKUBKR, "Allgemeine Encykiopaadie; "
JOCHER, "Allgemeines Ge ehrten-Lexikon."

A-grip pa, an ancient skeptical philosopher, men
tioned by Diogenes Laertius as author of a treatise called
"Five Reasons for Doubt."
Agrippa, KING. See HEROD AGRIPPA.
Agrippa, a-gRep pa, (CAMILLO,) an Italian architect,
born at Milan, flourished in the latter half of the six
teenth century.

Agrippa, a-grip pa, (!!ENRY CORNELIUS,) a German
physician, theologian, and astrologer, who acquired
celebrity by his varied learning, superior talents, and
supposed skill in alchemy and occult philosophy, was
born at Cologne in 1486. He was extolled by some as
an ornament of his age, and denounced by others as an
impostor and a heretic. In his youth he served several
campaigns in the Imperial army with distinction. His
success in the various pursuits which he followed in many
countries of Europe was hindered by his quarrelsome or
satirical temper. After he had lectured on theology at
Cologne, Pisa, Turin, and Pavia, and practised medicine
in France, he received, in 1529, invitations from Henry
VIII. of England, and from other sovereigns. He ac
cepted that of Margaret of Austria, regent of the Low
Countries; but she died in 1530. He died poor, at Gren
oble, in 1535, leaving, besides other works, one "On the
Vanity of the Sciences," in Latin, (1527,) which has
been translated into English and several other languages.
Hallam calls him " a meteor of philosophy."

See H. MORI.EY, "Life of Agrippa," 1856; "Agrippaeana oder
H. C. Agrippas Leben," 1722; "Retrospective Review," vol. xiv.
(1826.)

A-grip pa, (MAR/cus VIPSA NIUS,) a distinguished
Roman commander and statesman, born 63 li.C. His
family was obscure, but a friendship was early formed
between him and Octavius, (afterwards Augustus Caesar,)
and his fortunes became inseparably associated with
those of the future emperor. To the skill and wisdom
of Agrippa, Augustus owed much of his continued suc
cess ; especially his victory at Actium, which gave him
the empire of the world. After the death of Marcellus,
in 23 B.C., Agrippa married his widow, Julia, the daugh
ter of the emperor, by whom he had three sons, two of
whom were adopted by Augustus, (see CAIUS C/ESAR,)
and two daughters. He died 12 H.C., in the fifty-first
year of his age. Agrippa and Maecenas were the chief
ministers or advisers of Augustus, and the former was
for some time regarded as his destined successor.

See G. C. GEBAUER, " Dissertatio de M. V. Agrippa," 1717; P.
FRAND.SEN, "Marc. Vipsanius Agrippa: historische Untersuchung
iiber dessen Leben und Wirken," 1836; Livv, "Epitome;" TACITUS,
" Annales "

Agrippa, (MENE NIUS,) a Roman consul, who gained
a victory over the Sabines in 503 B.C., and afterwards
quelled a sedition of the plebeians by relating to them
the well-known fable of the belly and the members.

Agrip pa Post umus, a posthumous son of M. Vip
sanius Agrippa, put to death by Tiberius, 14 A.D.

Ag-rip-pi na |Fr. AC-RIPPINE, S gue pen ] I., a
daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, was mar
ried to Caesar Germanicus, the nephew of the emperor
Tiberius. She was the mother of the emperor Caligula.
She died, it is supposed, about 31 A.D.

See ELIZABETH HAMILTON, " Memoirs of the Life of Agrippina,"
1800; C. BUKKHARD, " Agrippina des M. V. Agrippa Tochter," 1846.

Agrippina II., or Agrippina Augusta, a daugh
ter of the preceding, and mother of the emperor Nero
bv her first husband, Domitius. She was a woman of
abandoned principles and remorseless cruelty. She
married her father s brother, the emperor Claudius, and
afterwards poisoned him. After a life of almost unin
terrupted crime, she was put to death (A.D. 60) by the
order of her son Nero.

e as /; c as s; g hard: ; as/: &lt;:, H, K. itttnral; x, nasal; u, trilled; sas z; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

AGUADO

AH IE

Aguado, a-gwa Do, (A. MARIA,) a financier and mil
lionaire, born at Seville, Spain, in 1784. He became a
banker of Paris. Died in 1842.

Aguado, de, da a-gwa oo, (FRANCISCO,) a learned
and pious Spanish Jesuit, born near Madrid in 1572;
died in 1654, leaving many religious works.

Agucchio. See AGOCCHI.

Agiiero, de, da a-gwa ro, (BENEDICTO MANUEL,) a dis
tinguished Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 1626; died
in 1670. He excelled in landscapes and battle-pieces.

Aguesseau, d , dt gi so , (HENRI FRANCOIS,) (writ
ten by himself Daguesseau,) a celebrated French chan
cellor, orator, and legislator, was born at Limoges, No
vember 27, 1668. He passes for the most learned law
yer that France ever produced, and is called the father
of French forensic eloquence. In 1691 he was appointed
by Louis XIV. one of the advocates-royal. He be
came procureur-general to the Parliament in 1700, and
chancellor of France in 1717. Before the latter date
he had resolutely defended the liberties of the Gallican
Church against the aggressions of the papal power in
the case of the bull Unigenitus, (1713.) He was ban
ished from court in 1718 for his opposition to the finan
cial system of Law, but was restored to his high func
tions in 1720, after the ruinous collapse of that system.
A contest for precedency between D Aguesseau and Car
dinal Dubois resulted in the removal of the former from
office in 1722. He was again appointed chancellor in
1737, and kept the seals until 1750, when he resigned on
account of his great age. Died in Paris in February,
1751. His works, consisting chiefly of forensic argu
ments, official papers, and treatises on law, were pub
lished in thirteen volumes, (1759-89.) His legislative
reforms constitute perhaps his greatest claim to the re
membrance of posterity.

See ST. SIMON S " Memoirs ;" ANTOINE THOMAS, " filoge de
H. F. d Aguesseau," 1760; " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de
D Aguesseau," 2 vols., 1835 ; " Discours sur la Vie et la Mort de M.
D Aguesseau," by his son : BOURLET DE VAUXCELLES, " fi oge de
D Aguesseau," 1760; MORLHOV, "filogedu Chancelier D Agues
seau," 1760; BOINVILLIERS, " filoge clu Chancelier D Aguesseau,"
1848; BOULLEE, "Histoire de la Vie du Chancelier D Aguesseau,"
1849.

Aguesseau, d , (HENRI C. JEAN BAPTISTE,) COUNT,
born at Fresnes in 1746, was a grandson of the chancel
lor. He became a member of the French Academy in
1789, and a senator in 1805. Died in 1826.

Aguiar, a-ge-aR , (ToMAS,) a Spanish portrait-painter
of the seventeenth century.

Aguila, d , da ge-la, (C.F.E.H.,) an officer of engineers,
who travelled extensively between 1770 and 1774. He
appears to have been a native of Spain. He wrote, in
French, a " History of the Reign of Gustavus III. of
Sweden, (1803.) Died in 1815.

Aguila, del, del a ge-la, (MIGUEL,) a Spanish painter,
whose works are said to be in the style of Murillo.
Died at Seville in 1736.

Aguilar, a-ge-laR , (GRACE,) a Jewish authoress, of
Spanish extraction, born at Hackney, near London, in
1816. She wrote "The Magic Wreath," in verse, and a
number of prose works, among which are " Women of
Israel," " Home Scenes and Heart Studies," and " Home
Influence : a Tale." Died at Frankfort in 1847.

A~uilera, de, da a-ge-la ra, (DiEGO,) a Spanish his
torical painter, who was born at Toledo, and lived in the
latter part of the sixteenth century.

Aguillon, i ge yoN , (FRANQOIS,) a learned Jesuit,
born at Brussels in 1566; died in 1617. He wrote a
work on optics, (1613.)

Aguirre, de, da a-ger ra, (JosE Saenz sa-Snth ,) a
i^anied Spanish ecclesiastic, born in 1630, was made
cardinal in 1686 by Pope Innocent XI. Died in 1699.
1 le wrote several works on theology.

Agujari, a-goo-ya ree, (LUCRETIA,) a popular N singer
and performer, who flourished in the latter half of the
eighteenth century. Died at Parma in 1783.

Agusti, a-goos tee, written also Agustin, a-goos-teen ,
or A^ostini, a-gos-tee nee, (MIGUEL,) a Spanish agri
culturist, born at Banolas, in the sixteenth century, was
prior of the order of St. John at Perpignan. He wrote
a useful and popular work called "The Book of the
Secrets of Agriculture," (1617.)

Agylaeus, aj-e-lee us or a-ge-la us, [Fr. AGYLEE,
t zhe la ,] (HENDRIK,) a Dutch jurist, born at Bois-le-
Duc about 1533, was noted as a Greek scholar. Died
in 1595.

Ahab, a hab, [Heb.DXnX,] an idolatrous king of Israel,
who reigned from 931 to 909 B.C. He was slain in bat
tle in a war against Benhadad, King of Syria. (See I.
Kings xvi.-xxii.)

A-has-u-e rus, or, more correctly, Ahhasverosh or
Akhasverosh, [Heb. itfniiynx,] a Hebrew name ap
plied in the Scriptures to various Persian and Median
kings. It is in all probability derived from the ancient
Persian word Khshvcrshc, (the Xerxes of the Greeks,
and corresponding to the Sanscrit Kshatra,) which sig
nifies "king" or "lion-king."

The Ahasuerus mentioned in the book of Esther is
generally believed to be Artaxerxes Longimanus, (in
modern Persian, Ardashir Daraz-dast,) who reigned
from 464 to 425 B.C. (See ARTAXERXES.)

Ahaa, a haz", or Achaz, a kaz, [Heb. IHN,] a son of
Jotham, King of Judah, succeeded his father about
741 and died 725 B.C. He distinguished himself above
all his predecessors by his abominable idolatry, even
sacrificing his own children to Moloch. (See II. Kings
xvi., and II. Chronicles xxviii.)

Ahaziah, i-ha-zT a, [Heb. n"HX,] King of Israel,
the son and successor of Ahab. He reigned two years.
from 909 to 907 B.C. (See I. Kings xxii. ; II. Kings i.)
Also, a son of Jehoram, King of Judah. He succeeded
his father about 896 B.C., and after a reign of one year
was slain by Jehu. (See II. Chronicles xxii. i-io; II.
Kings viii. 25-29.)

A-hen o-bar bus, in the plural A-hen o-bar bi, a
name given to a branch or division of the Domitian
family of Rome. It signifies " having red or copper-
coloured beard," and is said to have originated as fol
lows. When Castor and Pollux, on their return from
the battle of Lake Rcgillus, announced to Lucius Domi-
tius the victory of his countrymen, he did not believe
them ; whereupon they stroked his hair and beard, which
were instantly changed from black to red. The most
distinguished of this name are the following :

Ahenobarbus, (CNEIUS DOMITIUS,) a consul, 122
B.C., who gained a victory over the Allobroges and Ar-
verni, nations in the south of Gaul.

Ahenobarbus, (CNEIUS DOMITIUS,) a son of Lucius
Domitius, noticed below. In the civil wars he joined
the party of Brutus and Cassius, but after the battle of
Philippi he attached himself first to Antony and after
wards to Octavius. lie died a few days after the battle
of Actium, 31 B.C.

Ahenobarbus, (CNEIUS DOMITIUS,) a grandson of
the preceding, distinguished for his profligacy and fero
city. He married Agrippina, by whom he became the
father of the emperor Nero.

Ahenobarbus, (Lucius DOMITIUS,) a Roman gen
eral, who married a sister of Cato Uticensis. He be
came praetor in 58 and consul in 54 B.C. He opposed
Caesar and Pompey during their coalition. In the civil
war that ensued, he was appointed by the Senate to suc
ceed Caesar in Farther Gaul in the year 49. lie was, it
is said, the only leader of the senatorial party who
showed energy when Caesar invaded Italy. He was,
however, on account of the defection of his army, com
pelled to surrender at Corfinium. He was killed in 48
B.C., at Pharsalia, where he commanded a wing of Pom-
pey s army.

See C/ESAR, "De Bello Civili;" SUETONIUS, "Life of Caesar;
DION CASSIUS, "History of Rome."

A-hi jah, [Heb. !TnX,] a prophet who lived in the
reigns of Solomon and Rehoboam. (See I. Kings xi., xii. ;

I. Chronicles xxvi. 20; II. Chronicles ix. 29.)
Ahinielech, a-him e-lek, a priest, the son of Ahitub,

slain by the command of Saul. (See I. Samuel xxi., xxii.)

A-hith o-phel or A-ehit o-phel, a Hebrew courtier,

a counsellor of King David, whose cause he deserted and

became an adherent of Absalom in his rebellion. (See

II. Samuel xv. 12, xvi. and xvii.)

Ahle, a leh, QOHANN GEORG,) a German musician
and composer, born at Miihlhausen in 1650; died in
1701.

a, e, I, o. u. y, Ions;: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o. u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fill, fat; met; not; gem;!; moon:

AH IE

AIDAN

Ahle, (JoiiANN RUDOLPH,) a German organist, born
at Muhlhausen in 1625 ; died in 1673. He was the father
of the preceding.

Ahlee or Ahli, aii le , surnamed SHIRAZEE or
SHEERAZEE, (SHIRAZI,) she-ra zee, from the place of his
birth, a celebrated Persian poet, born at Shiraz about
the middle of the fifteenth century ; died about 1535.

Ahlwardt, Sl waRt, (CHRISTIAN WII.HELM,) an emi
nent German linguist, born at Greifswalde in 1760. In
1818 he was appointed professor of ancient literature in
the university of his native town, where he died in 1830.
He translated into German portions of many of the most
celebrated poems in the ancient as well as in the differ
ent modern languages. He made, moreover, a com
plete translation of the poems of Ossian.

Ahlwardt, (PETER,) born at Greifswalde in 1710.
Though the son of a shoemaker, by diligence he made
great progress in learning, and in 1752 was appointed
professor of logic and metaphysics in the University of
Greifswalde. Died in 1791.

Ahmed (aii med) or Achmet (aK/met) I., a son of
Mahomet III., born in 1590. He succeeded his father
on the Ottoman throne in 1603, and died in 1617.

Ahmed or Achmet II., born in 1643, was tne son
of Sultan Ibraheem, (Ibrahim.) He began to reign in
1691. His army was defeated with great loss by the
Austrians, at Slankament, in the same year. He was a
feeble ruler, and his reign was disastrous in various
respects. He died in 169^, and was succeeded by Mus
tafa II.

Ahmed or Achmet III., son of Mahomet IV.,
born in 1673, was raised to the Ottoman throne in con
sequence of a revolt of the Janissaries in 1703. Though
unfortunate in his war with Austria and Venice, his
reign was, on the whole, not inglorious. The Turkish
name was respected abroad, while learning and the arts
of peace flourished at home. Vet Ahmed was deposed
by the rebellious Janissaries in 1730, and died in 1739.

Ahmed or^Achmet IV., or Abd-ool- (Abdul-)
Hamid, al/dool-ha mid, was born in 1 725, and succeeded
the sultan Mustafa III. in 1773. His reign is memora
ble lor two disastrous wars with Russia, in which Turkey
lost the Crimea, a considerable portion of Circassia, and
some other territories, besides a number of important
fortresses. Died in 1789.

See HAMMKK, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."

Ahmed PASHA, surnamed THE TKAITOR, a Turkish
commander, who, in the reign of Solyman I., captured the
island of Rhodes, defended by the Knights of St. John.
Afterwards offended because the sultan did not make
him grand vizier, he raised the standard of revolt in
Egypt, and caused himself to be proclaimed sultan in
1524; but, though successful at first, he was soon after
taken and put to death.

Ahmed THE RENEGADE, grand vizier to the sultan
Solyman the Great, was a native of Gratz, in Styria.
He was educated a Christian, but, having been taken
prisoner by the Turks, he embraced the Mohammedan
faith, rose to distinction at the Ottoman court, and mar
ried the grand-daughter of the sultan. Died in 1580.

Ahmed-al-Kastalee, (al-Kastali,) -al-kas-ta lee, a
distinguished Arabian poet, born in Spain in 958 ; died
about 1030.

Ahmed-al-Makkari, (or Mekkari.) See MAK-

KAREE.

Ahmed An-Nahhas an-nah-nts , a distinguished
Arabian grammarian and philologist, who was drowned
in the Nile about 950. He was a native of Egypt.

Ahmed-ar-Razl See AHMED-ER-RAZEE.

Ahmed-er-Razee, (el-Razi,) -er-ra zee, a native of
Cordova, lived in the tenth century. He was the author
ol a voluminous work on the geography and history of
Spain. Another Ahmed-er-Razee, distinguished as
II:N- (or BEN-) FARIS, (fii ris,) i.e. "son of Faris,"
wrote an Arabic dictionary and a work on biography.
Died in 985.

Ahmed-Ibn (or -Ben) -Arab-Shah* (-Tb n a rab-
shah ,) an Arabian historian of the fifteenth century, was

the author of a "History of Tamerlane," which was
translated into Latin by Manger and into French by
Vattier. Died in 1450.

Ahmed-Ibn-Faraj far aj, a distinguished Arabian
poet and historian, native of Spain, died about 970.

Ahmed-Ibn-Haiibal. See IDX-HAMSAL.

Ahmed-Ibn-Tcolooii. See TOOLOON.

Ah med-Kediik ke-dtik , written also Achmet-
Geduc, a celebrated Turkish commander, who was grand
vizier of Mahomet II. from 1473 to 1477. During this
period he conquered the Crimea, and took the towns of
Kaffa and Azof, (or Tana.) Under Bayazeed (Bajazet)
II., the son and successor of Mahomet II., Ahmed-Kediik
greatly distinguished himself. He quelled a formidable
rebellion headed by Prince Jem, a brother of the sultan,
and conquered Kazim Bey, the last of the Caramanian
princes. But, having by his arrogance deeply offended
Bayazeed, he was put to death in 1482.

Ahmed Khan Abdalee (Abdali) or Abdallee
Kfln ab-da lee, a celebrated conqueror, the founder of the
Doorranee (or Durrani) dynasty in Afghanistan. He
commenced his military career in the service of the fa
mous Nadir Shah, by whom when a child he had been
taken prisoner. After the death of that monarch, he
succeeded in getting possession ef a large convoy of
treasure on its way from India to Nadir s camp, and by
this means laid the foundation of a powerful kingdom.
He was crowned at Canclahar in 1747, and died in 1773.
In the intermediate period he had extended his sway
over the eastern part of Persia, the whole of Afghanistan,
and a large portion of India.

See ELPHINSTONE S "Caubul;" MALCOLM S "History of Persia."

Ahmed- (or Achmet-) Resmi-Effendi, aii ired
res mee ef-fen dec, a Turkish historian and diplomatist,
who signed the treaty of Kainarji. He wrote a "His
tory of the War between the Turks and Russians,"
(1768-74.) Died about 1788.

Ahmed (or Ahmad) Shah, (of Afghanistan.) See
AHMED KHAN AUDAI.EE.

Ahmed Shah shah, succeeded his grandfather,Muz-
zaffar Shah, on the throne of Guzerat, in 1411. He
founded Ahmedabad, (i.e. "city of Ahmed,"; and made-
it his capital. Died in 1443.

Ahmed Shah Walee Bahmanee,* (Bahmani,)
wa Ice bSh ma-nee , the ninth king of the Bahmanee
dynasty in the Dekkan. He succeeded his brother Firoz
in 1422, and died in 1435.

Ahrens, a rens, (HEINRICH,) a German jurist, born
in Hanover in 1808. He was professor of philosophy at
Brussels from 1839 to 1848, after which he obtained a
chair at Gratz. His "Course of Natural Law" (Paris,
1838) has been often reprinted, and translated into sev
eral languages.

Ahriman. See ORMUZD.

Ahroon, (Ahrim,) ah roon , or Aaron, a Christian
priest of Alexandria, lived in the early part of the seventh
century. He composed a voluminous medical work, of
which some extracts only are extant.

Aibek-Azad-ed-De eii, (-ed-Ein,) a e-bgk (or T bek)
a zad ed-deen , the first Egyptian sultan of the dynasty
of Mamelukes. He began to reign in 1254, and was as-.
sassinatecl, through the jealousy of his wife, in 1257.

Aicardo, I-kau do, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian architect,
born in Piedmont, worked in Genoa. Among his works
is the aqueduct which supplies Genoa with water. Died
in 1650.

Aicher, T Ker, (OTTO,) a German antiquary and his
torian, born in 1628, lived at Salzburg, and died in 1705.
He wrote a work on epitaphs, entitled "Theatrum Fu-
nebre," (1675,) an d many treatises on points of anoicnt
history.

Aichspalt, iK spalt, (PETER,) an archbishop of Mftntz,
born about 1250. Died in 1320.

Aidan or ".ZEdan, ii dan, SAINT, a pious monk of
lona, who was employed about 635 A.D. by Oswald, King
of Northunibria, to instruct his subjects in the Christian
religion. He is considered as the first of the line of
bishops now styled Bishops of Durham.

SL-C HOOK-, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. i. chap. ii.

* This name is incorrectly given Ahmed Urn- Arabsham in the
Nouvelle Biographic GeneYa -e."

- as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as/; r,, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: K, trilled: s as a; th as in this. (JT"S^e Explanations, p. 23.)

* Pronounced in India, uh miid sh3h wiil ee bJh niiin-ce.

AIDAN

A INS LIE

Aidan, a dan. King of Scotland, began to reign about
578 A.D. Died in 606.

Aidoiieus. See PLUTO.

Aignan, in yo.V, (TIENNE,) an able French trans-
la or and political writer, born at Beaugency-sur-Loire
in 1773. He produced a translation of the Iliad in verse,
which is one of the best in the French language. In
1814 he was chosen a member of the French Academy
in olace of Bernardin cle Saint Pierre. After the restora
tion of 1815, he entered the ranks of the liberal opposi
tion as a publicist. His work entitled "The Condition
(Jitat) of the Protestants in France" (1818) is highly
commended for the sentiments and style. Died in
1824.

Aigneaux or Aignaux, in yo , (ROBERT and AN-
TOINE,) two brothers, born at Vire, in Normandy, in
the sixteenth century, translated Virgil into French
verse. Their work a ppeared in 1582, and in that age
enjoyed a high reputation.

Aiguani, I-gwa nee, a Carmelite friar of the fourteenth
century, was a respectable sculptor, and afterwards be
came Cardinal of Bologna. Died in 1400.

Aiguebere, Ag baiR , QOHN Dumas dii rna ,) a
French dramatic writer, born at Toulouse in 1692. He
studied at Paris, where he formed a friendship with Vol
taire which lasted through life. He was a counsellor of
the Parliament of Toulouse, the duties of which office
he performed with equal zeal and integrity. Died in

!755-

Aiguillon, d , cl.Yge yoN or da gel yoN , (ARMAND
VIGNEROT (or VIGNEROD) DUPLESSIS RICHELIEU,) IR -
mSN ven yeh-ro difpli se, resh le-uh ,) Due, born in
1720, is said to have been a great-grand-nephew of Cardi
nal Richelieu. He was prime minister of France during
the last three years of the reign of Louis XV. He was
chiefly indebted for his promotion at court to the favour
of Madame du Barry, mistress of the king. His admin
istration was highly disgraceful to France ; for, though an
accomplished courtier, he was destitute of all the great
and solid qualities necessary to form a statesman. Dur
ing his ministry the partition of Poland took place ; yet
he knew nothing of this nefarious project till it was already
accomplished. On the accession of Louis XVI., Aiguillon
was removed from office, and died in 1788.

See "Me moires clu Due d Aiguillon ; " LACKETEU.E, " Histoire
du Dix-huitieme Siecle."

Aiguillon, d , (ARMAND DE VIGNEROT DUPLESSIS
RICHELIEU,) Due, a son of the preceding. He warmly
supported the popular cause in the States-General of
1789, and was the second of the noblesse to renounce his
privileges in the session of August 4. He superseded
Custine in the command of one of the armies, early in
1792, but was proscribed by the dominant party in Au
gust of that year. He escaped by flight, and died in 1800.

See THIERS, "History of the French Revolution."

Aiguillon, d , (MARIE MADELEINE DE VIGNEROT or
VIGNEROD,) DUCHESSE, a niece of Cardinal Richelieu,
born about 1610. She founded several charitable institu
tions. Died in 1675.

Aiken, a ken, (WILLIAM,) born in Charleston, South
Carolina, in 1806, graduated at the College of South
Carolina in 1825, served several sessions in the State
Legislature, and. was chosen Governor of his native State
in 1844. In 1850 the Democratic party elected him a
representative to Congress, of which he continued a
member till 1857. In the memorable contest for the
speakership, 1855-6, he came within one vote of being
elected to that office. Among Southern statesmen he
has distinguished himself by his moderation and good
sense.

Aikin, (ANNA L^ETITIA.) .See BARBAULD.

Atkin, a kin, (ARTHUR,) a son of Dr. John Aikin,
noticed below, was born about 1780, and gained dis
tinction as a scientific writer. He was editor of the
"Annual Review," (1803-08,) and was for many years
secretary of the Society of Arts. His principal works
.are a "Manual of Mineralogy," (1814,) and a "Dictionary
of Chemistry and Mineralogy." Died in 1854.

Aikin, (EDMUND,) an English architect, born at War-
rington in 1780, was a brother of the preceding. Died
in 1820.

Aikin, (JOHN,) M.D., an eminent miscellaneous
writer, born in Leicestershire, England, in 1747. Besides
a number of essays and papers, scientific and literary,
he published an instructive and popular work, entitled
"Evenings at Home," (1792-95,) in which he was as
sisted by his sister, Mrs. Barbauld. His greatest work
was his " General Biography," a biographical dictionary,
extending to ten closely-printed quarto volumes : it was
completed in 1815. In 1816 he published his "Annals
of the Reign of George III.," in 2 vols. 8vo ; and in
1820, his " Select Works of the British Poets," with bio
graphical and critical prefaces. He died in 1822.

Aikin, (LucY,) a daughter of the preceding, born in
1781. She published, among other works, a "Memoir"
of her father, in 2 vols. 8vo, (1823,) and a "Life of
Joseph Addison," (1843.) Died in 1864.

Aikmaii, ak man, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish portrait-
painter, born in Aberclcenshire in 1682. He studied in
Rome, returned to Scotland in 1712, and settled in Lon
don in 1723, after which he painted portraits of many
eminent persons. He was a friend and patron of the
poet Thomson, who was introduced by him to Sir
Robert Walpole, and who wrote verses to the memory
ofAikman. Died in 1731.

See WALPOI.E, Anecdotes of Painting," etc.

Aillaud, t yo , (PIERRE Toussaint too saN ,) a
French poet, born at Montpcllier in 1759, became an
abbe and a professor at Montauban. Among his works
are " L Egyptiade," a heroic poem, (1802); and " Le
Nouveau Lutrin," (1815,) an imitation of Boilcau s " Lu-
trin." Died in 1826.

Ailly or Ailli, tl ye or fye , (PETER OF,) an eminent
French ecclesiastic, born at Compiegne, in Picardy, in
1350. In 1389 he was made chancellor of the Univer
sity of Paris; in 1395, Archbishop of Cambray; and in
1411 he was elevated to the dignity of cardinal. He
presided at one of the sessions of the famous Council of
Constance, in which John Huss was condemned to the
stake. Yet he was a reformer, and confessed and boldly
denounced the abuses and impurities of the church. He
died about 1420.

See DINAUX, "Notice historique sur P. D Ailly," 1824.

Aiired, al red, a religious and historical writer of the
twelfth century, and abbot of the monastery of Rievaulx,
in Yorkshire.

Aimar Rivault. See RIVAULT.

Aime (i ma ) de Varemie. Sec AIMON DE VA-
RENNE.

Aimeric, a mer-ik or em rtk , written also Haimeric,
a native of France, chosen Patriarch of Antioch in 1 142 ;
died in 1187.

Aimeric de Pegulha cla pa-gool ya, or Aimeri de
Peguilain, a meh-re deh peh-ge lilN , a troubadour of
the thirteenth century, wrote a number of popular poems
and songs. Died about 1260.

Aimeric OF JERUSALEM. See AMAURY.

Aimerich, I-ma-rek , (MATEO,) a Spanish Jesuit of
great learning, born in Catalonia in 1715, became pro
fessor of philosophy and divinity. He was noted for the
elegance of his Latin style. Among his works is " Novum
Lexicon Historicum et Criticum Antiqux Romanre
Literaturse," (" A New Historical and Critical Lexicon of
Ancient Roman Literature," 1787.) Died at Ferrara in
1799.

Aimery. See AMAURY.

Aimoin, I rnoin , [Fr. pron. .\m waN ; Lat. AIMOI -
NUS,] a French monk and writer, who flourished in the
latter part of the tenth century. Died in 1008.

Aimon. See AYMON.

Aimon de Varemie, ;YmoN deh v3 re~n , a French
poet, who lived in the thirteenth century.

Ainmiiller, Tn muKler, (MAXIMILIAN EMANUEL,) a
German painter, born at Munich in 1807, is called the
restorer of the art of painting on glass in Germany.
Among his works are the glass windows of Notre Dame
de Bon Secours, Munich. He has also a fair reputation
as an oil-painter.

Ainslie, anz le, (GEORGE ROBERT,) born at Edinburgh
in 1766, was appointed Governor of Dominica in 1813,
but soon after retired, having obtained the rank of lieu-

a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; me" t; n6t; good; moon;

JINSLIE

AJAX

tenant-general. Died in 1839. He was a distinguished
numismatologist, and published "Illustrations of the
Anglo-French Coinage," (1830.)

Ainslie, (HEW,) a poet, born in Scotland in 1792,
emigrated to America in 1822. He is author of " Pil
grimage to the Land of Burns ;" and of " Scottish Songs,
Ballads, and Poems," (1855.)

Aiiislie, (Sir Ror.i- UT,) born in Scotland about 1730,
was knighted and sent as Knglish ambassador to the
Ottoman Porte in 1755. While in Constantinople, he
made an extensive collection of coins and other curiosi
ties. Died in 1812.

Aiiisworth, anz worth, (HENRY,) one of the leaders
oi the English Independents in the sixteenth century, and
a distinguished controversial writer. He was banished
from England, with others of his sect, in 1593, and settled
in Amsterdam, where he became the pastor of a church.
Died about 1622. His "Annotations" on the five books
of Moses, the Psalms, and the Song of Solomon, is a
work of great merit.

See NEAL S "History of the Puritans;" BKOOK S " Lives of the
Puritans."

Aiiisworth, (ROBERT,) a writer, teacher, and eminent
classical scholar, born near Manchester, England, in
1660; died in 1743. He is principally known as the
author of an excellent Latin Dictionary, (1736,) which
is still extensively used.

Aiiisworth, (WILLIAM FRANCIS,) an English geolo
gist, physician, and traveller, born at Exeter in 1807. He
went with the expedition of Colonel Chesney to the Eu
phrates in 1835, and afterwards, as agent of the Bible
Society and Geographical Society, was sent to explore
the river Halys and visit the Christians of Koordistan.
He has published " Researches in Assyria," and " Travels
and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea,
etc.," (2 vols., 1842.)

Aiiisworth, (WILLIAM HARRISON,) a cousin of the
preceding, an English novelist, born at Manchester in
1805. He produced in 1834 "Rookwood," which had
great success. His popularity with a certain class was
maintained by his "Jack Sheppard," (1839.) He has
been censured for choosing robbers as the heroes of
these novels. Among his other works are "The Tower
of London," and "The Admirable Crichton." He is, or
was recently, proprietor of the "New Monthly Maga
zine." "With a great regard for Ainsworth," says an
English critic, "and a full sense of the talent and re
search which he brings to bear upon every subject which
he touches, we must say, we like not this gallows school
of literature." (See article on "Ainsworth and Jack
Sheppard" in " Fraser s Magazine" for February, 1840.)

Airault. See AYRAULT.

Airay, a re, (CHRISTOPHER,) an English clergyman,
born in Westmoreland about the beginning of the seven
teenth century. He wrote on logic. Died in 1670.

Airay, (HENRY.) an English Puritan, born in West
moreland in 1560, became provost of Queen s College,
Oxford, and vice-chancellor of the university, about 1606.
He wrote "A Treatise against Bowing at the Name of
Jesus," and several other works. Died in 1616.

Aird, ard, (THOMAS,) a Scottish poet, for some time
editor of the "Dumfries Herald," born in Roxburgh
shire about 1802. He published in 1846 a volume of
poems, \\ nich are commended. He has also written
some prose works, among which is "Religious Charac
teristics."

Airey, a re, (Sir RICHARD,) a British officer, born in
1803, served in the Crimean war, 1854-55, as quarter
master-general. He became lieutenant-general in 1862.

Airy, a re, (C.KOROE BII/DKI.I.,) an English astrono
mer, born at Alnwick, Northumberland, in 1801, was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he was
elected a Fellow in 1824. He became Lucasian profes
sor of mathematics at Cambridge in 1826, and Plumian
professor of astronomy in 1828. In 18^5 he was ap
pointed astronomer royal and director of the Observa
tory at Greenwich, the efficiency of which he increased
b\ improved methods and new instruments. He was
elected in 1836 a Fellow of the Royal Society, from which
he lias received the Copley and Royal medals. He pub
lished in 1846 an important "Abridgment of the Planet

ary and Lunar Observations from 1 750 to 1 830." Among
his works are the articles " Figure of the Earth," and
"Tides and Waves," in the " Encyclopaedia Metropoli
tana," and the article " Gravitation," in the " Penny C - -
clopcedia."

Aischah. See AYESHAH.

Aisse, :Vsa , (MADEMOISELLE,) a fair Circassian, born
about 1694, was brought to France by Count de Ferriol
in 1698. She was educated by Madame de Tencin. Her
letters were published, with notes by Voltaire, (1787.)
Died in 1733.

Aitkeii, at ken, QOHN,) M.D., a Scottish physician
and medical writer, who died in 1790.

Ait kin, (ROBERT,) for many years a printer and pub
lisher in Philadelphia, was born in Great Britain in
1734, and came to America in 1769. He died in 1802,
To him is generally attributed the authorship of an " In
quiry into the Principles of a Commercial System for
the United States."

Alton, a ton, (JoiiN,) D.D., a British writer of the
present era, was minister of Dolphinton, county of Lan
ark, Scotland. He published " The Lands of the Mes
siah, Mohammed, and the Pope, as visited in 1851,"
(1852.)

Aiton, (WILLIAM,) an eminent Scottish botanist,
born near Hamilton in 1731. He was selected in 1759
by George III. to establish and arrange a botanic gar
den at Kew. In 1783 he became superintendent of the
pleasure- and kitchen-gardens of the king. He published
a descriptive catalogue of the plants cultivated in the
botanic garden, entitled " Hortus Kewensis," (3 vols.,
1789,) which Lowndes calls an excellent work. Died in

1793-

Ai ton, (WILLIAM TOWNSEND,) a landscape-gardener,
born in 1766, was a son of the preceding, whom he suc
ceeded as superintendent at Kew. Died in 1849.

Aitsingerus or Aytsiiigerus, It-sin jer-us, (MI
CHAEL,) otherwise called MICHAEL von Eytzing
fon It sing, an Austrian chronologist and historian, born
about 1535 ; died about 1600.

Aitzema, van, van Tt-za ir&gt;a, (FOPP.E, fop peh,) a
Dutch diplomatist, born in Friesland in 1586. Died at
Vienna in 1637.

Aitzema, van, (LEO,) a Dutch historian, born at
Doccum in 1600; died in 1669. He wrote a valuable
history of Holland, extending from 1621 to 1668, (15
vols., 1657-71.)

Aiyoob, Aiyftb, or Aiyoub. See JOB.

Aiyoob- (Aiyub- or Ayyub-) (Ibn-Shadi or
-Shadhi,) T yoob Ib n sha clce, [written in French AIOUB
(or AYOUB) EBN (or BEN) SCHADI, and E I OUB BEN
CHADY,] surnamed NEJM-ED-DEEN or NEDJM-ED-DIN,
nejm-ecl-deen , (the "star of religion,") was born in Ar
menia, or Western Persia, in the early part of the twelfth
century. His son, the famous Salah-ecl-Din or Saladin,
having become the vizier of the Egyptian caliph Al-Ad-
hed, invited his father to Egypt. Aiyoob was received
with the highest honour by the caliph, as well as by Sal
adin, who offered to resign his position in favour of his
father. But the latter refused to accept it, and died in
retirement in 1173. The dynasty founded by Saladin is
called, from the name of his father, that of the Aiyoobites.

See D HEKBEI.OT, " BibliothAque Orientale;" QUATREM&RE,
" Histoire ties Sultans Mamelouks d Egypte ;" also, the " Biographical
Dictionary" of IBN-KHALLIKAN.

Aiyoobites or Aiyubites, T yoob Its, written also
Ayyubites, Aioubites, and Eioubites, [called in
Arabic AIYOO BIA and BENEE (or BENI) AIYOOH, ben ee
I yoob , i.e. the " sons of Aiyoob,"! a name applied to the
successors of Saladin, who founded the Aiyoobite dynas
ties of Egypt, Damascus, etc. (See preceding article.)

Ajala or Axala, de, da a-na la, (MARTIN PEREZ,) a
Spanish prelate, born in 1504, became Archbishop of
Valencia. He wrote "Apostolic Traditions," (1562.)
Died in 1566.

Ajax, a jax, [Gr. Amr,] the name of two Grecian
heroes who fought in the Trojan war.

Ajax, the son of Tclamon, [in Latin, A jAxTELAMo -
NIUS,] was King of Salami s. He was often called "the
Great," on account of his great stature, in which he
exceeded all the other Greeks. He was also distin-

as k; c as s; ^hard; g as// &lt;;, H, K,^n(/tinil; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z: th as in this. (Rj^See Explanations, p. 23.)

AJAX

AKERBLAD

guished for his valour and beauty. He contended with
Ulysses for the armour of Achilles without success, be
came mar; in consequence of this defeat, and killed
himself.

See the " Iliad ;" SOPHOCLES, "Ajax;" HYGINUS, "Fabuiac."

Ajax, son of O ileus, was King of Locris, and was
called the " Lesser Ajax," to distinguish him from the
son of Telamon. Next to Achilles, he was the swiftest-
footed of the Greeks. He perished while returning from
Troy, through the wrath of Minerva and Neptune, whom
he had offended by his impiety.

Ajello, a-yel lo , (SEBASTIANO,) a Neapolitan medical
writer, who nourished about 1575.

Ajescha. See AYESHAH.

Akakia, S ka ke t , written also Acacia, (MARTIN,)
an eminent French physician of the sixteenth century ;
died in 1551. His real name was SANS-MALICE, ("with
out malice,") which, according to the usage of those
times, he changed into the Greek AKAKIA, having the
same signification. He translated portions of Galen s
works, to which he added commentaries that show him
to have been a man of judgment and a close observer
of facts. He left a son of the same name, who became a
professor of surgery, and second physician to Henry III.
Died in 1588.

Akbar or Akber, Sk ber,* [usually pronounced by
the Hindoos uk ber,] (written also Acbar, Ackbar,
Ekber,) Mohammed, surnamed JALAL-ED-DEEN, (or
DjEi.A L-ED-DiN,)ja-lSl / ed-deen / , the "glory of the faith,"
the greatest and best of all the Mogul emperors, was born
at Amerkote, in the valley of the Indus, the I4th of Oc
tober, 1542. He appears to have been, like Alfred the
Great, one of those thoroughly accomplished sovereigns
of whom history presents us with so few examples.
His father Humayoon had been driven from his capital
by his rebellious subjects : so that Akbar was born in
exile. The young prince grew up amid privations and
dangers. He early distinguished himself by his courage
and magnanimity. The victory which restored Huma
yoon to the throne of his father, after his long banish
ment, was clue in a great measure to the heroic example
of young Akbar, then only about fourteen years of age.
But, although he displayed on various occasions the
most splendid abilities as a general, his military achieve
ments form the least part of the glory of his reign. He
was not only a brave and able commander, but a far-
seeing statesman and a humane, magnanimous, and
enlightened ruler. He treated all his subjects, whether
Mohammedans, Christians, Jews, or Hindoos, with strict
and impartial justice, so that he received and deserved
the title of Jug at Gooroo, the " protector or guardian
of mankind ;" and he furnishes perhaps the only exam
ple in which an Oriental sovereign has really merited
such an appellation. If he had any fault as a ruler, it
was, perhaps, too great a lenity towards his enemies.
It is related that in the early part of his reign, when he
had not yet completed his sixteenth year, he had de
feated and taken prisoner a brave but most troublesome
leader of a rebellious faction. The captive, covered
with wounds, was brought into the presence of the young
emperor. Akbar s vizier, who also held the office of
tutor or governor, exhortc;! him to take away with his
own hands the life of his dangerous foe. But, though
on the field of battle he had no superior, he had not the
nerve to kill in cold blood a defenceless captive. He
drew his sword, but, scarcely touching with it his victim,
he burst into tears. The vizier regarded the young
prince with a look of stern disapprobation, and then
with his own sabre struck off the head of his prisoner.

Akbar earnestly sought to lighten as far as practi
cable the taxes and imposts of his subjects. With a
view to regulate the imposts according to a just scale,

* This is sometimes erroneously accentuated on the last syllable
Akbir; but the name is nothing more than the comparative and su
perlative degree of the Arabic adjective Kel&lt;eerot KeKr, (" great, ") and
should be pronounced, as every Arabic scholar knows, ak bar. It sig
nifies "greater" or "superior ;" also "greatest;" hence as a surname
it nearly corresponds to the Latin Maxitnus, which was given as a
surname to the greatest of the Fabii. "Allah Akbar," the battle-cry
of the Moslems, is often incorrectly rendered "God is great;" it prop
erly signifies " God is greatest," or superior to every other power:
hence Gibbon translates it "God is victorious. "

he caused to be taken a complete survey or census
of his whole empire, with minute statistical details in
regard to the extent or area of the different provinces
and their various productions. The book treating of
these particulars, called Ayccn Akbcry, (" Institutes of
Akbar,") enjoys a great celebrity, and is probably with
out a parallel in Oriental history. Among his other
regulations, Akbar established throughout his vast do
minions posts, (called by the Hindoos Dak Chowkee,)
to convey either ordinary letters or the expresses of the
government. According to Ferishtah, he never during
his reign had less than five thousand elephants, (proba
bly the greatest number ever possessed by any Indian
sovereign ;) he had also twelve thousand stable-horses,
and nearly one thousand hunting leopards. Akbar died
in 1605, after a reign of fifty-one years, during which he
had enlarged his dominions by the conquest of Bengal
and the greater part of the Dekkan. With him died, it
would seem, all the magnanimity which had hitherto
distinguished the race of Baber. He was succeeded by
his son Selim, better known by the proud title of Je-
hangeer, or the "Conqueror of the World."

See FEKISHTA, " History of the Mahomedan Power in India,"
translated by BKIGGS, vol. li. ; ELPHINSTONE, "History of India;"
MILL, " History of British India," 1841; ABOOL-FAZL, "Akbar
Namah ; " "Memoirs of Humayoon," translated into English by
STEWART; RICKARDS, "India," 2 vols., 1821.

Akemoff. See AKIMOFF.

Aken, van, vfn a ken, (JAN or JEAN,) a Dutch or
Flemish artist, distinguished as a painter and still more
as an engraver, lived in the first half of the seventeenth
century.

Aken, van, (JOSEPH,) a painter of Antwerp, born
about 1710, excelled in his representations of draperies
and embroidery. He came to England, where he died
about 1750.

Akeiiside, a ken-sld, (MARK,) an eminent English
didactic poet, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1721, was the
son of a butcher. His parents were dissenters. His mo
ther s name was Mary Lumsden. He studied at the Uni
versity of Edinburgh, devoting his chief attention to med
ical sciences, and took his degree of M.D. at Leyden in
1744. On this occasion he wrote an able Latin thesis
on the origin and growth of the human fetus, and at
tacked some prevalent theories on that subject which
have since been supplanted. He had begun to write
verse at an early age. His principal poem, " The Pleas
ures of the Imagination," in blank verse, appeared in
1744, and had a great success.

" It has undoubtedly a just claim to very particular
notice," says Dr. Johnson, "as an example of great feli
city of genius and uncommon amplitude of acquisitions,
of a young mind stored with images and much exercised
in combining and comparing them. ... In the
general fabrication of his lines he is perhaps superior to
any other writer of blank verse ; his flow is smooth and
his pauses are musical, but the concatenation of his
verses is commonly too long continued, and the lull close
does not recur with sufficient frequency." Addison s
essays on the Pleasures of the Imagination formed the
groundwork of this poem.

Akensicle published a volume of odes in 1745. In
1748 he became a resident of London, where he prac
tised medicine with moderate success until his death.
He was appointed a physician to St. Thomas s Hospital,
and one of the physicians to the queen about 1760.
Besides the works above named, he wrote several short
poems and medical treatises, including a treatise on
Dysentery, (1764,) in elegant Latin, which, says Johnson,
" entitled him to the same height of place among the
scholars as he possessed before among the wits." Died
in 1770.

See JOHNSON, "Lives of the Poets;" BUCKE, "Life. Writings,
and Genius of Akenside," 1832; KIPPIS, " Biographia Britannica ;"
CAMPBELL, "Specimens of the English Poets."

Akerblad, a ker-blad, (JOHAN DAVID,) a distinguished
Orientalist and antiquary, born in Sweden in 1760.
Having been attached to the Swedish embassy at Con
stantinople, he visited Jerusalem in 1792, and the Tread
(i.e. the plain on which ancient Troy was situated) in
1797. He was the first who attempted with any success

AKEREL

ALARCON

to decipher the cursive or demotic writing of the ancient
Egyptians. His chief work is a " Letter on the Egyptian
Inscription of Rosetta," (1802.) Died in 1819.

See CHAMPOLI.IOX, " Grammaire figyptienne ; " " Biographie Uni-

verselle," (Supplement.)

Akerel, a ker-el, (FREDRICK,) a Swedish engraver,
born at Sodermannland in 1748. Died in 1804.

Akerhielm, o ker-hyelm , (ANNA,) a learned Swedish
lady, born in 1642. Died in 1698.

Akermann, a ker-man, (ANDERS,) a Swedish en
graver, born at Upsal in 1718. Died in 1778.

Akers, a kerz, (BENJAMIN PAUL,) an American sculp
tor, born at Saccarappa, in Maine, in 1825. lie passed
several years at Rome, whither he went in 1855. Among
his works are busts of Edward Everett and Henry \V.
Longfellow, and a head of Milton. Died in Philadelphia
in May, 1861.

See TUCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists," New York, 1867.

Akersbot, a kers-bot, (WILLEM,) a Dutch painter
and engraver, lived at Haarlem in the first half of the
seventeenth century.

Akiba, a-kee M, (Beii Joseph,) a famous Jewish
rabbi, born in the first year of the Christian era. Hav
ing joined the false Messiah Bar-Cokeba, (A.D. 120,) he
was taken prisoner and put to a cruel death by the Ro
mans, after a life of one hundred and twenty years.

Akimoff, Akiinov, or Akimow, a-ke-moP, written
also Akemov, (I VAN,) an eminent Russian painter,
born in 1754; died in 1814.

Akoui. See AKWEI.

Ak-Shems-ed-Deen, (or -ed-Din,) Sk-shSms-ed-
deen , (i.e. the " White (or bright) Sun of the Faith,") a
Turkish sheikh, famous for his prophecies, born in Syria
in 1389 ; died about 1472. When the troops of Ma
homet II., after having besieged Constantinople, had
become discouraged with the obstinate resistance of the
Greeks, Ak-Shems-ed-Deen is said to have predicted
truly the day and hour in which the city would be taken.

Akwei, a-kwa c, (or Akoui, a-kwee ,) a distinguished
Chinese general and prime minister during the reign of
Keen-Loong, (or -Loung,) which lasted from 1736 to 1796.

A L, al or al, the Arabic definite article, forming a
prefix to a multitude of Oriental names : as, Ai.-AnKL, a
surname signifying "the Just;" AL-AMKKN (-AM^N,)
" the Trustworthy ;"AL-MANSOOR, " the Victorious," etc.
It should be observed that the / in this particle is often
changed so as to correspond to the initial consonant of
the following word: as, AD-DEMEEREK for AL-DEMEEREE,
(-DEMIIU,) AX-NASIR for AL-NASIK, AR-RASIIEED for
AL-RASHEK.D, (-RASCHID,) AS-SEFFAH for AL-SEFFAH,
(or -S.A.FFAH.) The a in al has an obscure sound, and is
sometimes pronounced nearly like ool, at other times like
ill or el, varying according to the different dialects. (See re
marks on Oriental names in the Introduction to this work.)

Al-a-bas ter, (WILLIAM,) an English writer, born in
Suffolk in 1567 ; died in 1640. He "was chaplain to the
Earl of Essex in his expedition to Cadiz in 1596. He
is chiefly known as the author of a Latin tragedy entitled
"Roxana," said to be to a great extent a mere transla
tion from an Italian drama by Groto. The poet Spenser
expressed great admiration for his poetry.

See FUI.I.RK, "Worthies of England;" WOOD, "Fast! Oxonien-
ses," in "Athena; Oxonienses;" ADDISON, "Spectator," No. 221.

Alacoque, 3 lt kok , (MARGUERITE,) a French nun,
born in 1647 ; died in 1690. As a reward for her emi
nent piety, she was, it is said, gifted with prophecy, and
foretold correctly the time of her own death.

Ala-ed-Deen,(or Ala-ed-Din,) a-la ed-decn , written
also Aladdin, a younger son of Osman the founder of
the Ottoman Empire, was a distinguished statesman of the
fourteenth century, and first organized the band called
Janissaries, (i.e. Yeni-Sheri, ya ncc-sha rec, or the "new
troops.") In 1370, Ala-ed-Deen, at the head of his new
soldiers, gained a great victory over the emperor An-
dronicus, and took Nicasa, the bulwark of the Greek
Empire in Asia.

See VON HAMMER, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs ;"
MAKSIGLI, " Stato milltare dell ImperioOttomano.

Alagon, d , dS lt go.N , (Louis,) a French noblemar
put to death in 1605 for having entered into a plot fo
delivering Marseilles into the hands of the Spaniards.

Alahmar, a-laii mar, (Ibn (Tb n) Moham med,) the
first king of Granada, built the Alhambra. Died in 1237

Alaimo. See ALAYMO.

Alaimo, a-lT mo, a Sicilian nobleman, who took z
part in the famous conspiracy called the Sicilian Ves
pers in 1282. Afterwards, in 1287, he was drowned by
the order of the King of Sicily.

Alain, t laN 7 , or Alan, S loN , [Lat. ALA NUS,] a
bishop of Auxerre (France) in the twelfth century, who
wrote a life of Saint Bernard. Died about 1185.

Alain, (Jon.N.) See ALAN.

Alain Chartier. See CIIARTIKR.

Alain de Lille, S la.V deh lei, [in Latin, ALA NUS DE
IN SULIS,] a French ecclesiastic, surnamed THE UNIVER
SAL DOCTOR, was reputed one of the most learned men
of the twelfth century. He died about the year 1200,
leaving numerous works, some of which are in verse.

Alaleona,* a-la-la-o na, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian law
yer and litterateur, born at Macerata in 1670 ; died in
1749.

Alaman, a-la-man , (LucAS,) a Mexican politician,
born in the eighteenth century. He was appointed min
ister of foreign affairs (1853) by Santa Anna. His policy
was reactionary and despotic. Died in 1855.

Alaman, d , dS lt muN , (SiCARD,) the chief minister
and favourite of Raymond VII. of Toulouse. Died in

1275-

Alamamii. See ALEMANNI.

Alamamio. See ALEMANNI.

Alameen, (Alamin,) a-la-meen , (Mohammed,) a
son of Haroon-ar-Rasheed, (Haroun-al-Raschid,) whom
he succeeded in the caliphate in 809. Having disre
garded his father s injunctions that he should give the
command of the army to his brother Al-Mamoon and
continue him in the government of Khorassan, he was,
after a short and troubled reign, besieged in his own
capital, and slain while on his way to surrender himself
to his victorious brother, in 813.

Al-Ameer or Al-Amir, al-a-meeR , a Saracen, who
assumed the title of caliph in the ninth century, and
ravaged some parts of the Greek Empire.

Alamos, a la-mos, (BALTAZAR,) a Spanish writer,
who lived in the latter part of the sixteenth and begin
ning of the seventeenth century, was born at Medina del
Campo. He is the author of an accurate Spanish trans
lation of Tacitus, (1614.)

Alamundar, al-a-moon-dar ,(?) a Saracen prince, who
invaded Palestine in 509 A.D., and, it is said, was con
verted by the anchorites.

Alan, CARDINAL. Sec ALLEN, (WILLIAM.)

Alan (al an) OF LYNN, an English theologian and
monk, born at Lynn. Died about 1420.

Alan OF TEWKESIUJRY, an English monk of the
twelfth century, wrote a Life of Thomas a Becket. Died
in 1201.

Alan, a lan, or Alanus, a-la nus, (JoHANN,) a Danish
writer and professor of philosophy, was born at Ala
about 1565. Died in 1631.

Aland. See FORTESCUE, (Sir JOHN.)

Al an-son, (EDWARD,) an English surgeon, born in
Lancashire in 1747. He practised in Liverpool, made
improvemer.ts in the method of amputation, and wrote
"Practical Observations upon Amputation," (1779.)
Died in 1823.

Alarcon, a-laR-kon , (FERNAN MARTINEZ de Ce-
vallos da tha-val yos,) the founder of the noble house
of Alarcon, fought against the Moors in Spain in the
twelfth century.

Alarcon, de, da a-laR-kon , (Don ANTONIO Suarez
swa reth,) a Spanish historian, born about 1636, was a
son of the Marquis of Trocifal. Died about 1663.

Alarcon, de, (Don FERNANDO,) called El Senor
Alarcon, a famous Spanish general, born about 1466,
to whose custody Francis I. was committed after the

* The " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale" spells this nameAfa/cona ;
but tills is doubtless a misprint. Compare MAZZUCHELLI, "Scrittori
d ltalia."

: as /; c as s; %hard; g as/; o, H, K,g-nt(nral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (&Jf =P See Explanations, p. 23.)

ALARCON

ALAWT

battle of Pavia, 1525. He had a high reputation for
honour and bravery. To him was intrusted the custody
of the captive pope Clement VII. in 1527. Died in 1540.
See ANTONIO SUAREZ DE ALARCON, "Comentarios de los hechos
del Seiior Alarcon," 1665.

Alarcoii, de, (HERNANDO,) a Spanish navigator, of
whom little is known. He was sent in 1540 to explore
the coast of California, of which he made an accurate
survey. He was the first who ascertained that Lower
California was not an island, but a peninsula.

See D. DE MOFRAS, "Explorations dei Territoires de 1 Oregon,
des Calitornies, etc."

Alarcon y Mendoza, de, da a-laR-kon e men-do -
tha, (Don JUAN Ruiz roo-eeth ,) an excellent Spanish
iramatic poet, born in the province of Mexico about the
end of the sixteenth century. He removed to Spain
about 1622, and attained eminence as a lawyer. A vol
ume of his dramas was published in 1628, and another in
1634. Among his works are "Las Paredes oyen,"
("Walls have Ears ;") "El Examen de Maridos," ("Trial
of Husbands ;") and "LaVerdad sospechosa," ("Suspi
cious Truth,") which was the original of Corneille s
" Menteur." His moral tone is highly commended ; his
versification is easy and harmonious. His other princi
pal merits are a faithful delineation of Spanish manners,
and a nervous expression of noble sentiments.

See A. DE PUIBUSOUE, " Histoire comparee des Litteratures Es-
pagnoles et Francaises;" N. ANTONIO, "Bibliotheca Hispana."

Alard, a laRt or it ll R , written also Adelard, a Dutch
ecclesiastic, born at Amsterdam in 1490, was the author
of several controversial works.

Alard, (FRANCIS,) a theologian, born at Brussels in
the sixteenth century. He was converted to Protestant
ism by reading a work by Luther. Having been de
nounced to the Inquisition by his own mother, it was
determined to poison him, in order to save his relatives
from the shame of a public execution. The poison did
not take effect ; and he afterwards escaped from prison,
and died in Holstein in 1578.

See a Life of F. Alard, by his grandson Lambert, in "Danische
Bibliothek," vi. ; and NICHOLAS ALARD, "Decas Alardorum Scriptis
Clarorum."

Alard, a laRt, (LAMBERT,) a German writer, a son of
Wilhelm, noticed below, born in Holstein in 1602, was
the author of a treatise " On the Music of the An
cients," in Latin, and a history of Holstein, entitled
" Nordalbingia," etc., (1628.) Died in 1672.

Alard, t laV, (MARIE JOSEPH Louis,) a French
medical writer, born at Toulouse in 1779. Died in Paris
in 1850.

Alard, a laRt, (NICHOLAS,) a German biographer,
born at Tonningen in 1683, wrote "Decas Alardorum
Scriptis Clarorum," (1721.) Died in 17^6.

Alard, (WILHELM, or WILLIAM,) a son of Francis,
above named, was born in 1572, and became pastor at
Crempe, in Holstein. He wrote many religious works,
and Latin poetry which was much admired. Died in
1645.

A.-lar diis, (surnamed /EMSTELREDA MUS, from the
place of his birth,) a distinguished scholar and rhetori
cian, born in Amsterdam towards the end of the fifteenth
century; died about 1541.

Al ar-ic, [Lat. ALARI CUS,] a famous conqueror, King
of the Visigoths, was born about 350 A.n. He served for
some time in the army of the emperor Theodosius, who
died in 393. Having been offended by Arcadius, he in
vaded the Eastern Empire with a large army in 396. lie
captured Corinth and other cities, and ravaged the coun
try, but was checked by Stilicho, (or Stilicon,) and con
cluded a treaty with the ministers of Arcadius, who
admitted him again into his service, with the rank of
general. In 402 he invaded Italy, where he was de
feated .by Stilicho at Pollcntia, and was compelled to
withdraw from Italy. After the death of Stilicho, Alaric
renewed, in 408, the invasion of Italy, where the feeble
Honorius offered little resistance. He advanced to the
gates of Rome, then the most magnificent city of the
world, the citizens of which induced him to spare it by
the payment of five thousand pounds of gold and thirty
thousand pounds of silver. He soon after withdrew his
army into Tuscany. Negotiations ensued between Ala

ric and Honorius ; but the latter foolishly rejected the
reasonable terms offered by the victorious Goth, who
captured Rome in 410 and delivered it up to pillage for
six days. The churches and public buildings, however,
were spared. Alaric marched southward, with a design
to conquer Sicily, and died at Cosenza in 410.

See JORN ANDES, "De Rebus Geticis;" SOZO.MEN, "Historia;"
GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" CLAUDIAN,
"De Bello Getico."

Alaric II, a king of the Visigoths, who succeeded
his father Euric in 484 A.D. He was killed in battle
by the hand of Clovis, King of the Franks, in 507. The
reign of Alaric II. was distinguished by the formation of
a body of laws known as the " Breviarium Alaricianum,"
i.e. " Compilation or Abridgment of Alaric."

Alary, s Js re , (GEORGE,) a French missionary, born
in 1731 ; died in 1817. He preached in the Burmese
Empire, and afterwards in China, making many converts.
He returned to his native country about 1772.

Alary, (JEAN,) a French poet, born at Toulouse in
the sixteenth century. He wrote, besides other poems,
" Virtue Triumphant over Fortune ," (1622,) and a prose
work called " Abrege des longucs Etudes," ("Abridg
ment of Long Studies.")

Alary, (PIERRE JOSEPH,) a French academician, born
in Paris in 1689. He was sub-preceptor to Louis XV.,
and was admitted into the French Academy in 1723.
His Letters to Bolingbroke were published. Died in 1770.

See BOLINGUROKE S "Letters."

A Lasco, Alasco, or Alasko, a-las ko, (Ton\,) a
Polish Protestant theologian, born in 1499. He avowed
his conversion to the doctrines of the Reformation after
he had become Bishop of Vcsprim in i ^29. He preached
some years at Emden, and in the reign of Edward VI.
went to London, where he had charge of a congregation,
On the accession of Mary (1553) he was compelled to
leave England, and returned to Germany. He wrote
several works on theology. Died in Poland in 1560.

See J. F. BERTRAM, " Griind.licher Bericht von Johann Alasco,"
3 vols., 1733.

Al-Asliaree, (Al-Ashari,) al-ash a-ree , an Arabian
doctor, born at Basrah about 860 A.D. He was the founder
of a Mohammedan sect called Asharites. Died about 940.

Alasko. See Alasco.

Alasmai. See ABDEL-MALKK-!P,N-KOREVI!.

Alatino, a-la-tee no, (MoSES,) a Jewish physician,
born at Spoleto, Italy; lived about 1600. He translated
into Latin Galen s treatise on Hippocrates work en
titled " De Acre Locis ct Aquis." (See HIPPOCRATES.)

Alaudarms. See ALLOUETTE.

Alaux, t 16 , (JEAN,) a French historical painter, born
at Bordeaux in 1786. He was patronized by Louis
Philippe, and became a member of the Institute.

Alava, d , da la-va, (MiGUEL RICAROO,) a Spanish
general, born at Vittoria in 1771. He fought against the
French in the Peninsular war, became aide-de-camp to
Wellington, and obtained the rank of general of brigade
about 1813. In May, 1822, he was chosen President of
the Cortes, and in the next month fought for the Consti
tution and the Cortes against the insurgents. His party
having been subdued by French intervention, he went
into exile in 1823. He returned to Spain after the death
of Ferdinand, arid was sent as ambassador to London in
1834. Died in 1843.

Alava Esquivel, d , da la-va es-ke-vel , (DiEGO,) a
Spanish prelate, born at Vittoria. He was successively
Bishop of Astorga, of Avila, and of Cordova, and wrote
a work on Councils, "De Consiliis Universalibus, (pub
lished in 1582.) Died in 1562.

Alava y Navarete, de, da a la-va e na-va-ra ta,
(Don IGNACIO MARIA,) a Spanish admiral, born at Vit
toria. lie entered the navy in 1766, and became rear-
admiral in 1787. In 1794 he set out on a voyage of cir
cumnavigation, during which he rectified many errors
in the charts of the South Sea. He was second in com
mand of the Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, (1805,) where he
was wounded. In 181 7 he was raised to the rank of high-
admiral. Died the same year.

See CLARK S "Life of Nelson."

Alawy, a-la wee, a Persian physician, bom at Shiraz
in 1669, was patronized by Aurungzebe. Died in 1749.

a, e,T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; nSt; good; moon;

ALATMO

ALBERICUS

Alaymo, Alainio, pronounced alike a-ll mo, or Al-
caimo, al-kl mo, (MARCO ANTONIO,) an Italian physi
cian, born in Sicily in 1590. He practised at Palermo,
and was regarded as the first physician of his time in
Sicily. Among his works is one called " Diadecticon,"
giving an account of different medicinal substances,
(1637.) Died in 1662.

Alba. See ALVA.

Alba, d , (.MACIIINO.) See MACHINO D ALBA.

Albacini, al-ba-chee nee, (CARLO,) a Roman sculp
tor who Flourished in the latter part of the eighteenth
century. lie was much employed in the restoration of
antique statues. He was living in 1807.

Alban, aul ban, SAINT, the first person put to death
in England for embracing the Christian faith. He suf
fered martyrdom in the time of Diocletian, about 285
A.D. The monastery of Saint Albans was founded, in
honour of him, in the eighth century.

Albaiie. See ALBANI, (FRANCESCO.)

Albaiieze, iTba naz , or Albaiiese, al-ba-na sa, a
noted Italian singer, who lived in Paris. He died in
1800.

Albani, al-ba nee, (ALESSANDRO,) [Lat. ALEXAN -
DER ALBA NUS,] a nephew of Pope Clement XL, born
at Urbino in 1692, was made cardinal in 1721. He was
a liberal patron of learning and the arts. He made a
very valuable collection of statues and other works of
art. Died in 1779.

See STKOCCIU, "De Vita Alex. Albani Cardinalis," 1790.

Albani, (ANNIBALE,) CARDINAL, born at Urbino in
1682, wrote "Memoirs of the City of Urbino," (1724.)
Died about 1750.

Albani, (FRANCESCO,) [in French, L ALBANE, IftK-
bSn , a distinguished Italian painter, born at Bologna
in 1578, was a pupil of Denis Calvart and of Ludovico
Caracci. He painted mostly in Bologna and Rome ;
in the latter city he executed some large frescos. His
best works are small oil-pictures, treating of subjects
from ancient poetry and mythology, and arc highly fin
ished. In the opinion of Mengs, his studies of women
surpass those of all other painters. He excelled also in
rural prospects. He reproduced in many of his works
"Venus Sleeping," "Diana Bathing," and similar sub
jects. Among his master-pieces arc " The Four Ele
ments," " The Toilet of Venus," a " Noli-me-Tangere,"
and an Annunciation. He had a family of twelve chil
dren, who, as well as his wife, were remarkable for their
beauty, and served him as models for his angels, Ve-
nuses, and Cupids. The sculptors Algardi and Fiam-
mingo, it is said, likewise studied Albani s children as
models. Died at Bologna in 1660.

See MALV ASIA, "Felsina Pittrice ;" PASSERI, "Vitede, 1 Pittori;"
HEINECKEN, "Dictionnaire cles Artistes."

Albani, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian landscape-
painter, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1668.

Albani, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO.) See CLEMENT XL

Albani, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) a nephew of the
cardinal Alessandro Albani, born at Urbino in 1720, and
made cardinal in 1747. Died in 1809.

Albani, (GlusEiM E,) an Italian- nobleman, born at
Koine in 1750, became cardinal in 1801, and died in 1834.

Albano. See ALBANI, (FRANCESCO.)

Albaiio, al-ba no, (GIOVANNI GIROLAMO,) [Lat. Jo-
ii AN NES HIERON YMUS ALBA NUS,] an eminent Italian
lawyer, born at Bergamo in 1504, made cardinal in 1570,
and died in 1591.

Albans, Saint, sent aul banz, (JoiiN OF,) a physi
cian, philosopher, and theologian, born near Saint Al
bans, in England. In 1198 he became chief physician
to Philip II. of France; in 1228 lie joined the Domi
nican order, and died about the middle of the thirteenth
century.

Albans, Saint, (DUCHESS OF,) an English actress,
whose maiden name was Mellon, was married first to
the rich banker Coutts, and again to the Duke of Saint
Albans. Died in 1837.

Albany, al ba-ne, (LouiSA,) COUNTESS OF, a daughter
of Prince Stolberg-Gedern, was born in 17:53. She was
married in 1772 to the Pretender Charles Stuart, a grand
son of James II., from whom she was separated in 1780.
Soon after the death of her husband (1788) she was

f. as /; 9 as s; g hard; g , as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; t-h as in this.

privately married to the poet Alficri, and settled at
Florence. (See AT/FIERI.) He ascribed to her influence
much of his success as an author. Died in 1824.

Albarelli, al-ba-rel lee^jACOPO,) a Venetian sculptor,
born about 1570; died in 1620.

Albaspinus. See AUBESI-INE.

Al-ba-teg ni-us, the Latin name of Albateiiee, (Al-
bateni,) al-ba-ta nee, or Albatini, al-ba-tee nee, a cele
brated Arabian astronomer, who died at Bagdad in
929. He made an abridgment of the Almagest of Ptol
emy, with a commentary, and wrote other valuable works.

Albe, d , Due. See ALVA, DUKE OF.

Al-Beidawi, (or -Beidhawi.) See BEIDAWEE.

Albeladory or Al-Beladori, (an Arabian historian.)
See BELADOKI.

Al be-marle, (ARNOLD van Kep pel,) EARL OF, a
Dutch gentleman, born in Gueldcrland in 1669. He
became a favourite courtier and attendant of William,
Prince of Orange, whom he accompanied to England in
1688. "Courage, loyalty, and secrecy were common
between him and Portland," says Macaulay. He was
created Earl of Albemarle and Master of the Robes by
William III., and was a rival of the Duke of Portland.
He served as general in the war against Louis XIV.,
(1702-12.) Died in 1718.

See MACAULAY S "History of England," vol. v.

Albemarle, DUKE OF. See MONK.

Albenas, d , dtlb na , or dal beh-na , QEAN JOSEPH,) .
VICOMTE, a French military officer and writer, born near
Nimes in 1760 ; died in 1824.

Albenas, d , ([EAN Poldo pol do ,) a French anti
quary, born at IS 1 imes in 1512, was a Protestant. He
wrote a work on the antiquities of Nimes, (1560.) Died
in 1565.

Alber, al ber, [Lat. AL BERUS,] (ERASMUS,) a learned
German poet and witty satirist, who was an intimate
friend of Luther, and a zealous Protestant. He was
born at Sprendlingen, a village of Hesse-Darmstadt, but
the date of his birth is unknown. He was employed as
teacher or preacher at Stadc, Magdeburg, and other
places. He wrote, besides satires against the Roman
Catholics, many sacred songs or hymns, abounding in
original ideas. Died in 1553.

See T- J- KORBEK, " Beitrag zu der Lebensbeschreibunt; Erasmi
Alberi."

Albergati, al-beR-ga tee, (FABio,)an Italian political
writer, born at Bologna. Died about 1605.

Albergati, (NiccoLo,) an Italian, born at Bologna in
1375, was made cardinal in 1426,, and died in 1443.

Albergati-Capacelli, d , dal-beR-ga tce ka-pa-chel -
Ice, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian marquis, senator of Bo
logna, born in 1728, devoted himself to theatrical rep
resentations and became a consummate actor. He also
composed several comedies and farces. Died in 1804.

Albergoni, al-beR-go nee, an Italian preacher and
learned theologian, born at Milan in the latter part of
the sixteenth century ; died in 1636. .

Albergotti, al-beR-got tee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
lawyer, born at Arezzo in 1304 ; died in 1376.

Alberi, al ba-rec, (EuGENio,) an Italian writer, born
at Padua in 1817. He published a Life of Catherine de
Medicis, (1838,) and a work, " De Lavori di G. Galilei, "

(1843-)

Alberic I. and II. Sec ALBERICUS I. and II.

Alberic, tTba rek , a Benedictine monk, afterwards a
bishop, born at Beauvais in 1080. In 1140 he con
voked at Antioch a council which deposed the patriarch
Rodolphus, (or Rudolphus.) Died in 1147.

Alberic (aTba rek ) OF TROIS FONTAINES, (tR\va
foN tAn ,) a French chronicler of the thirteenth century.

Alberici, al-ba-ree chee, or Albrizzi, al-bRet see,
(ENRICO,) an Italian painter of Bergamo, born in 1714;
died in 1775.

Alberico de Rosciate, al-ba-ree ko di ro-sha ta,
an eminent Italian lawyer, born near Bergamo about
the beginning of the fourteenth century. Died in 1354.

Al-be-ri cus or Alberico (al-ba-rce ko) [Fr. AL-
BERIC, Sl ba rek l I., a count of Tusculum, and con
sul of Rome in the tenth century.

Albericus II., a son of the preceding, married the

Explanations, p. 23.)

ALBERO

ALBERT

daughter of Hugo, King of Italy, and governed Rome
with full authority from 936 till his death in 954.

Al be-ro I. and II., the name of two bishop-princes
of Liege" in the twelfth century.

Alberoni, dl-ba-ro nee, (Giuno,) an Italian, born
near Piaccnza in 1664. Having been appointed agent
of the Duke of Parma at the court of Madrid, he won
the favour of Philip V., obtained a cardinal s hat, and
was made prime minister of Spain about 1716. Aiming
to restore to that country the power she had possessed
under Philip II., Alberoni, as little restrained by sound
judgment as by principle or the laws of nations, without
an? declaration of war, surprised and captured Caghari
and other towns of Sardinia then belonging to the Em
peror of Germany. All Europe cried out against this
violation of the rights of nations, and the ambitious car
dinal was, in consequence, deprived of his office, in
1719, and banished from Spain. He retired to Italy,
where he died in 1 792.

See ROUSSET DE MISSY, "Vie d Alberoni," 1719; G. MOORE,
" Life of Cardinal Alberoni," 1806.

Albers, al bers, (HEINRICH PHILIPP,) a German phy
sician, born at Hameln in 1768; died in 1830.

Albers, (Jo HAN N ABRAHAM,) a distinguished Ger
man physician, born at Bremen in 1772. He first in
troduced among his countrymen a knowledge of the doc
trines of Broussais and the discoveries of Laennec. Died
in 1821.

Albers, (JOIIANN FRIEDRICH HERMANN,) a German
physician, born at Dorsten, near Wesel, in 1805. He
became professor of medicine at Bonn in 1831. Among
his works is a " Manual of General Pathology," (2 vols.,
1842-44.)

Albert, al bert, [Ger. ALBRECHT, al bRCKt,] I., Duke
of Austria, son of Rudolph of Habsburg, was born in
1248, and elected Emperor of Germany in 1298, in the
place of Adolphus of Nassau, who had been deposed.
He was distinguished for his avarice, cruelty, and for an
all-grasping and unprincipled ambition. In 1308 a con
spiracy of the nobles was formed against him, and he
was killed by his own nephew, John surnamed the Par
ricide.

See PISZZL, " Oesterreichische Biographie ;" J. C. PFISTER, " Ge-
schichte der Teutschen."

Albert (Albrecht) II., (or THE LAME,) Duke of
Austria, was a younger son of the preceding. He was
born in 1298, began to reign in 1330, and died in 1358.

Albert III., Duke of Austria, a son of Albert the
Lame, born in 1348, died in 1395. He was a distin
guished patron of the arts and sciences.

See ERSCH und CRUDER, " Allgemcine Encyklopaedie ;" LUDEN,
Histoire de I Aiieaiagne."

Albert (Albrecht) IV., Duke of Austria, born in
1377, succeeded his father, Albert III., in 1395. He
was a nephew of Sigismund, King of Hungary, and of
Wenceslaus of Bohemia, each of whom appointed Albert
his successor. Died in 1404.

See ERSCH und GRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."

Albert (Albrecht) V., Duke of Austria, son of Al
bert IV., was born in 1397, and succeeded his father in
1404. He distinguished himself by his activity against
the Hussites, over whom he gained several victories.
In 1435 he drove the Turks from Hungary ; and on
the death of Sigismund, his father-in-law, the Hunga
rians chose Albert for their king. In 1438 he was
elected Emperor, and thus became Albert II. of Ger
many. He died in 1439.

See WENK, " Historia Albert! II.," 1740; HORMAYR, " Oester-
reichischer Plutarch; 1 ERSCH und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Ency .dc-
paedie."

Albert (Albrecht) VI., Duke of Austria, surnamed
THE PRODIGAL, born in 1418, was a son of Ernest.
The dominions of Ernest were divided, in 1438, between
Albert and his brother Frederick III., Emperor of Ger
many. Died in 1463.

Albert, (Albrecht,) Archduke of Austria, a son of
the emperor Maximilian II., was born in 1559. He was
appointed Governor of the Low Countries by Philip II.
in 1596, and married Isabella, (Elizabeth,) a daughter
of that king. In an attempt to conquer the Dutch, he

was defeated by Maurice of Nassau at Nieuport, in
1600. He took Ostend, after a memorable siege of three
years, in 1604. The war was suspended in 1609 by a
truce of twelve years. Died in 1621.

See LE MIKE, "Vita Albert! Pli," 16.22; CHARLES DUBOIS,
"Histoive d Albert et d Isabelie," 1^47 ; DK THOU, "Histoire."

Albert ur Aibrecht, (FRIKDRICH RUDOLPH,) ARCH
DUKE, an Austrian prince and general, son of the Arch
duke Charles, the famous commander against Napoleon,
was born in Vienna in 1817. He fought under Radetzky
at Novara in 1849, and was appointed Governor of Hun
gary in 1851. Having obtained command of the south
ern army, lie defeated the Italians at Custozza, about
the ist of July, 1866, soon after which he succeeded
Bcnedek ?s commander-in-chief.

Albert (Albrecht) of Baircuth, surnamed AL-

of Brandenburg. He was a man of dissolute habits.
He was defeated in 1553 by the Elector Moritz of Sax
ony, and his allies. Died in 1555.

Albert (Albrecht) I. of Bavaria, son of the em
peror Lewis (Ludwig) V., succeeded to the territory of
Lower Bavaria in 1349 ; died in 1404.

Albert (Albrecht) IV. of Bavaria, surnamed THE
WISE, succeeded to the government in 1463, and, turn
ing all his attention to the consolidation and organiza
tion of his estates, contributed greatly to the rank and
influence which Bavaria has since attained among the
powers of Europe. Died in 1508.

Albert (Albrecht) V. of Bavaria, surnamed THE
MAGNANIMOUS, succeeded his father, William IV., in
1550. He was a distinguished patron of learning and
the arts. Died in 1579, aged about fifty.

Albert I., Margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed THE
BEAR, was born about 1106. He is called the founder
of the house of Brandenburg. Died about 1170.

Albert II., Margrave of Brandenburg, succeeded his
brother, Otho.II., in 1206. Died in 1221.

Albert III., Margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed
ACHILLES, and ULYSSES, on account of his bravery and
wisdom, born in 1414, was renowned for martial ex
ploits. He was a son of Frederick I. He commanded
the army of the emperor, in 1471, against the Duke of
Bavaria. Died in 1486.

Albert (Albrecht) of Brandenburg, a grandson of
the preceding, and first Duke of Prussia, was born in
1490. In 1511 he was elected Grand Master of the
Teutonic Order, who held Prussia proper as a fief of
the King of Poland. In 1525 he abandoned the vows
of his order, became a Protestant, and received Prussia
as a hereditary fief of the crown of Poland. Thus the
dominion of the Teutonic Knights was brought to an
end. Died in 1568.

Albert, (Albrecht,) Duke of Brunswick, called THE
GREAT, born in 1236, was a son of Duke Otho. He was
an energetic and warlike prince. Died in 1279.

Albert, (Albrecht,) Archbishop of Magdeburg,
waged war against the emperor Otho, and promoted
the election of Frederick II. in 1212. Died about 1232.

Albert, (Albrecht,) an archbishop of Magdeburg
and Mentz, the son of John Cicero, Elector of^Bran-
denburg, w r as born in 1489. He was elected Archbishop
of Magdeburg in 1513, Archbishop and Prince Elector of
Mentz in 1514, and raised to the dignity of cardinal in
1518. Died in 1545. He was a patron of literature,
and possessed popular manners, but was unfitted by hki
want of energy and courage to contend with the storms
which prevailed in Germany at the time of the Reformation.

Albert (Albrecht) of Mecklenburg, a son of Al
brecht, Duke of Mecklenburg, was chosen King of Swe
den in 1363. He waged war against Margaret, Queen
of Denmark, wHo gained a decisive victory in 1388 and
deprived him of the crown. Died in 1412.

Albert, (Albrecht,) Archbishop of Mentz in the
twelfth century, was a turbulent politician, and an
enemy of the emperor Henry V. Died in 1137.

Albert (Albrecht) I., Duke and Elector of Saxony,
began to reign in 1212. He accompanied the emperor
Frederick II. in a crusade against the Saracens in 1228.
Died in 1260.

Albert (Albrecht) II. of Saxony, was a son of the

a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon;

ALBERT

ALBERT I

preceding. He contributed to the election of three em
perors, Rudolph 1., Adolph, and Albert I. Died about
1 300.

Albert (Albrecht) III. succeeded his brother Ru
dolph as Elector of Saxony in 1418. Died in 1422.

Albert, tl baiit , a French revolutionist, whose proper
name is ALEXANDRE MARTIN, was b.&gt;rn in Oise about
181^, and became a mechanic. 1111840 he founded a
journal called " L Atelier," ("The Workshop.") He
was a member of the provisional government formed in
February, 1848, and of the Constituent Assembly
which met in May of that year. For his alleged com
plicity in a sedition of May 15, 1848, he was sentenced
to deportation.

Albert THE BLESSED, Patriarch of Jerusalem, born in
the diocese of Parma about 1150, was the legislator of
the order of the Carmelites, (or White Friars.) He was
chosen Patriarch of Jerusalem in 1204, and assassinated
at Acre in 1214.

Albert, (CHARLES.) See CHARLES ALBERT.

Albert OF COLOGNE. See ALBERTUS MAGNUS.

Albert, (ERASMUS.) See ALBER.

Albert LE GRAND. Sec ALBERTUS MAGNUS.

Albert THE GREAT. See ALBERTUS MAGNUS.

Albert (Albrecht) vox HALBERSTADT, (fon hal ber-
stat ,) a German poet or minnesinger, wrote about 1210-20.

Albert, al beitt, (HEINRICH,) a German lyric poet and
musician, born at Lobenstein, Saxony, in 1604. He pro
duced sacred and secular airs and songs which arc highly
esteemed. He was organist of the cathedral of Kpnigs-
berg from 1631 till his death. Died in 1668.

Albert, (MICHAEL and SALOMON.) Sec ALBERTI.

Albert,( PRINCE,) or, more fully, Albert Francis Au
gustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha and Consort of Queen Victoria of Great Britain,
was born near Coburg in August, 1819. He was the
second son of Duke Ernest I. He visited England in
1838, and was married to Victoria in February, 1840.

In 1842 he was elected Chancellor of the University
of Cambridge. He obtained the rank of field-marshal
in the British army and colonel of the Grenadier
Guards. While maintaining a proper reserve and neu
trality with respect to political parties, he acquired a
great influence in the public councils, and merited the
confidence of the queen by his discretion and other
qualifications which rendered him her best adviser. He
was the efficient chairman of the Council of the Great
Exhibition of 1851, and in 1859 was chosen president
of the British Association for the Advancement of Sci
ence. Prince Albert was interested in the promotion of
the fine arts, of agriculture, and, we may add, of every
benevolent enterprise. By the manner in which he
passed through the somewhat peculiar trials of his ex
ceptional position, in which there were no safe prece
dents to guide him, he won the general approbation of
the British people. Died on the I4th of December,
1 86 1. His death was regarded as an irreparable loss,
not merely to the queen, but to the nation of which he
had been king in all but the name.

See "Early Years of His Royal Highness the Prince Consort."
1867. ^TT-H7i &# &lt;l - .&gt;7. v

Albert OF STADE. See ALBERTUS STADENSIS.

Albert OF SWEDEN. Sec ALBRECHT OF MECKLEN
BURG.

Albert, d , (CHARLES.) See LUYNES, Due DE.

Albert, d , dSTbaiR , (Louis JOSEPH,) Prince of Griin-
berghen or Grimbergen, born in 1672, was a grandson of
Constable de Lnynes. He entered the service of the em
peror Charles VII. He published " The Dream of Alci-
biades," (1735.) Died in 1758.

Albert, d , dSl bain , (I Ari.,) born in 1703, was made
Archbishop of Sens in 1753, and Cardinal of Lnynes in
1756. Died in 1788. He was distinguished for his libe
rality of mind and for his high moral character.

Albert d Ailly. See CHAULNES, Due DE.

Albert Diirer. See DUKER.

Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of
Prince Albert, noticed above, and Queen Victoria, and
heir apparent to the British crown, was born on the 9th
of November, 1841. Besides being Prince of Wales, he

is Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Duke of Cornwall and
Rothesay, and Baron Renfrew. In 1860 he visited the
United States, where he was received with flattering de
monstrations of popular favour. In the winter of 1861-2
he set out on a tour to Syria, Palestine, Egypt, etc. He
married, in March, 1863, the Princess Alexandra of Den
mark, and has a son, Albert Edward, born in January, 1 864.

Albertano da Brescia, al-beR-ta no da bResh ya, an
Italian writer, who was magistrate of Brescia in the early
part of the thirteenth century.

Albertazzo, Marquis of Este. See ESTE.

Alberti, al-bCR/tee, (ARiSTOTiLE,)called alsoRidolfo
Fioravanti, rc-dol fo fe-o-ra-van tee, an architect and
engineer, born at Bologna, was one of the greatest me
chanicians of the fifteenth century.

Albeiti, (BENEDETTO,) a Florentine chief of the popu
lar party in the revolution which occurred at Florence in
1379-80. He was exiled in 1387.

Alberti, (CHERUBINO,) a brother of Giovanni, noticed
below, a painter and noted engraver, was born in 1552.
Died in 1615.

Alberti, (DURANTE,) an Italian painter, born at Borgo
San Sepolcro in 1538. He worked in Rome, where he
painted in fresco and oil. Died in 1613.

Alberti, (FiLiPPO,) an Italian poet, born at Perugia in
1548, was a friend of Tasso. Died in 1612.

Alberti, al-beR tee, (GEORG WILHELM,) a German
Protestant minister, born at Thundern, in Hanover, in
1723. He published "Letters on the State of Religion
and Science in Great Britain," (1752-54,) which are
commended by Guizot in the "Biographic Universelle."
Died in 1758.

See ERSCH und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyclopaedic."

Alberti, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian painter, born at Borgo
San Sepolcro in 1558, was a brother of Cherubino. He
was unrivalled in his age for foreshortenings of the fig
ure, and excelled in perspective and landscape. He
painted frescos in the Vatican for Clement VIII. Died
in 1601.

Alberti, (JoiiANN,) a German jurist and Orientalist of
the sixteenth century, born at Widmannstadt. He was
appointed Chancellor of Austria by Ferdinand I., and
published an "Epitome of the Koran," with critical
notes, (1543.) Died in 1559.

Alberti, (JoiiANN,) a Dutch theologian and profound
scholar, was born at Assen in 1698. He became profes
sor of theology at Leyden in 1740. He was well versed
in Greek literature, and had a high reputation as a critic.
His greatest merit consists in his labours to perfect the
Lexicon of Hesychius, of which he published an excel
lent edition, 2 vols., 1746-66. Died in 1762.

Alberti, (JOHANN GUSTAV WILHELM,) a German
manufacturer, born at Hamburg in 1757. He invented,
about 1817, a machine for spinning linen. Died in 1837.

Alberti, (LEANDRO,) a learned Italian friar, born at
Bologna in 1479. He wrote, besides other works, a
" History of Bologna," (1541-43,) and a "Description of
all Italy," (1550.) Died in 1552.

Alberti, (LEON BATTISTA,) an eminent Italian archi
tect and philosopher, born of a noble family, at Genoa,
(or, as some writers say, at Florence,) in 1404. He was
also a poet and a painter, and highly distinguished by his
general learning and personal character. He succeeded
to the direction of several works which Brunelleschi left
unfinished at Florence, where he completed the Pitti
Palace and was one of the restorers of the classic style.
The church of St. Francis at Rimini is called his mas
ter-piece. He also gained a high reputation as a writer
on art, by his " Treatise on Architecture " (" De Re yEdi-
ficatoria," 1485) and treatises on painting (1540) and
sculpture. Died in 1472.

See G. B. NICCOLINI, " Elogio di L. B. Alberti," 1819 ; MILIZIA.
"Vite degli Architetti ;" TIKAIIOSCHI, "Storia della Letteratura
Italiana;" QUATREMERE DE QUINCY, "Histoiredes plus celebres
Architecles. "

Alberti (al-beVtee) or Albert, (MICHAEL,) a learned
German physician and medical writer, born at Nu
remberg in 1682. In 1716 he was appointed professor
of medicine, and in 1719 professor of philosophy, in the
University of Halle. Died in 1757.

as /:; 9 as s; g hard; g as /.- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

anations, p. 23.)

ALBERT I

ALBINI

Albert!, (ROMANO,) an Italian painter and writer on
art, born at Borgo San Sepolcro, lived about 1600.

Alberti, (SALOMON,) an eminent German physician
and anatomist, born at Naumburg in 1540, was appointed
professor of anatomy and philosophy in the University
of Wittenberg in 1576, and died in 1600. His writings
and discoveries entitle him to a high rank among mod
ern anatomists.

Albert!, (VALENTIN,) a German theologian, born in
Silesia in 1635, became professor of theology at Leipsic.
He wrote many polemical works on questions of theology.
His "Compendium of the Law of Nature" ("Compen
dium Juris Naturae," 1673) was written in opposition to
a work of Puffendorf ; it has often been reprinted. Died
in 1697.

Albert! di Villanova, al-beVtee dc vel-la-no va,
(FRANCESCO,) an Italian, bora at Nice in 1731, known
as the author of several popular dictionaries. His Dic-
tionnaire Italien-Frar^ais et Frai^ais-Italien" had a high
reputation, and has passed through a number of editions.
Died in 1800.

Albertinelli, al-beR-te-nel lee, (MARIOTTO,) an emi
nent Florentine painter, born about 1475, imitated and
equalled Fra Bartolommeo. He painted religious sub
jects at Florence and Rome. " The Visitation of Eliza
beth to the Virgin " is his master-piece. Innocenzio da
Imola was his pupil. Died about 1520.

See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters. "

Albertini, al-bCR-tce nee, or Albert!, al-bea tee,
(ANNIBALE,) an Italian medical writer, lived about 1600,
and wrote "On Diseases of the Heart," (" De Affec-
tionibus Cordis," 1618.)

Albertini, [Lat. ALBERTI NUS,] (FRANCESCO,) an Ital
ian priest and antiquary, born at Florence in the fifteenth
century. His chief work is one on the Antiquities of
Rome, entitled " On the Wonders of Ancient and
Modern Rome," (" De Mirabilibus novas ct veteris Urbis
Romx," 1505.)

Albertini, (GIORGIO FRANCESCO,) an Italian theologi
cal writer, born in Istria in 1732. He became professor
of theology in the University of Padua. Died in 1810.

Albertini, (!PPOLITO FRANCESCO,) an eminent Italian
physician, born at Crevalcore in 1662. He studied under
Malpighi, whom he succeeded as professor of medicine
in the University of Bologna. Died in 1738, leaving a
valuable essay on diseases of the heart.

Albertini, (PAOLO,) an Italian priest, writer, and po
litical agent, born at Venice about 1430. Died in 1475.

Albertini, von, fon al-beR-tee nee, QOIIANN BAP
TIST,) an eminent Moravian minister, born at Neuwied,
on the Rhine, in Germany, in 1769. He wrote hymns
which display much poetical talent. He was a man of
extensive acquirements and most estimable character.
His sermons are remarkable for beautiful simplicity of
style. He was made a bishop in 1814. Died near Herrn-
hut in 1831.

Al-ber-ti nus, (/GID IUS,) a German satirist, born
at Deventer, in Holland, in 1560; died in 1620. He is
remarkable for having written in the German tongue at
a time when Latin was almost universally employed by
the learned men of Germany. His works were very
popular in his time.

Alberto!!!, al-beR-tol lee, (FERDINANDO,) an Italian
architect, was a nephew of Giocondo, whom he suc
ceeded at the Academy of Milan. Died in 1846.

Albertolli, (GIACOMO,) an Italian architect, born in
1761, became professor of civil architecture in the Uni
versity of Padua. Died in 1805.

Albertolli, (GIOCONDO,) a distinguished Italian archi
tect, born in 1742, was appointed professor of decorative
architecture at Milan about 1775. Died in 1840.

Albertrandy, al-beR-tRan de, (JOHN CHRISTIAN,) an
eminent Polish historian, linguist, and numismatist, born
at Warsaw in 1731. He became librarian to King Stan
islaus, who appointed him Bishop of Zenopolis. Among
his works are " Roman Antiquities explained by Medals,"
(3 vols., 1805-08,) and a " History of Poland during the
Last Three Centuries." Died in 1808.

Albertsen, al bSRt-sen, (HAMILTON HENDRIK,) a
Danish writer of Latin poetry, born at Copenhagen in
1592. Died in Egypt about 1630.

Albertucci de Borselli, al-beR-toot chee da boR-
sel lee, (GIROLAMO,) an Italian preacher, and chronicler,
born at Bologna about 1432. Died in 1497.

Albertus, al-beR tus, a German painter and engraver,
born in Saxony. Died about 1680.

Alber tus Mag nus, [Fr. ALBERT LE GRAND,trbaiR
leh gRON,] (i.e. "Albert trie Great,") a celebrated school
man and philosopher, born at Lauingen, in Bavaria,
about 1 200, was sometimes called Albert de Boll-
stadt (bol stat) and Alber tus Gro tus. He occupies
the first rank among the philosophers and theologians of
the middle ages. He became a Dominican friar in his
youth, and, after lecturing on theology for three years at
Paris, was chosen provincial of his order in 1 254. During
a long period he gave public lectures at Cologne. He
was appointed Bishop of Ratisbjn in 1260, but about
1263 he resigned that office, which he had never soli
cited. He died in 1280. As a man, he was remarkable
for an enthusiastic love of knowledge, for modesty, and
for a noble and disinterested spirit. He left a great num
ber of works, which treat of logic, theology, physics, and
metaphysics. Thomas Aquinas was his disciple.

See RUDOI.PHUS NOVIOMAGEXSIS, "De Vita Albert! Magni,"
1499 ; RAPHAELS KADI, " Ristretto della prodigiosa Vita del Alberto
Magno," i6So-S8; PKTRUS DE PRUSSIA, "Vita Albert! Magni;"
ECHAKD, "Scriptures Ordinis Praedicatorum ;" GAUSI.INUS, "Synop
sis Vitae Alberti Magni,". 1630; LUUWIG CHOULA.NT, "Albertus
Magnus." Tauehft f sSc,r+tcaJ-x rnrtirt~e7/tS: / ,.,,.*, nrc. .

Al-ber tus Sta-den sis, an abbot of Stade, Hanover,
in the thirteenth century, known as the author of the
"Chronicon Alberti," (i.e. "Chronicle of Albertus,")
containing an account of many events which occurred in
the north of Germany in the middle ages down to 1256.

Alberus. See ALBER.

Albi, Sl be , (HENRI,) a French Jesuit, born in Prov
ence in 1590. He wrote biographical notices of several
religious persons. Died in 16^9.

Albicaiite, al-be-kan ta, (GIOVANNI ALBERTO,) a
mediocre Milanese poet, who flourished about the middle
of the sixteenth century.

Al-bi cus, (SIGISMUNDUS,) or Albicus OF PRAGUE,
called also Al bic or Albik and Albicius, al-bish e-us,
a distinguished physician, born in Moravia in the latter
part of the fourteenth century. He taught medicine at
Prague for many years, and was physician to Wences-
laus IV., King of Bohemia, by whom in 1409 he was
made Archbishop of Prague. He held this office only
about four years. Died in 1427.

Albignac, d , daTben yik , (Louis ALEXANDRE,)
BARON, a French military officer, born in Gascony in
1739. He served in Hindostan previous to the peace
of 1783, and afterwards commanded the tenth division
under the French Directory. He retired from service
in 1798, and died in 1820.

Albignac, d , (PHILIPPE FRANCOIS MAURICE,)
COUNT, a French royalist general, born at Milhaucl in
1775 ; died in 1824.

Albiii, aul bin, (ELEAZAR,) an English artist and
painter in water-colours, published in 1731 a "Natural
History of Birds," with 205 fine coloured plates ; also
a work on English Insects, in Latin, (1731,) and the
same in English in 1749, with 100 copper-plates, coloured.
The figures were correctly drawn from the life by him
self.

Albina, al-bee na, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter,
sculptor, and architect, lived at Palermo, and died in
1611.

Albini, al-bee nee, (ALESSANDRO,) a distinguished
Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1568, was a pupil
and coadjutor of the Caracci. Among his works is a
" Prometheus bringing Fire from Heaven." Died in 1646.

Albini, al-bee nee, (FRANZ JOSEPH,) a distinguished
German lawyer and statesman, born at Saint Goar, in
Rhenish Prussia, in 1748. His great fame as a jurist
introduced him to the notice of the emperor Joseph II.,
who conceived a warm affection for him and gave him a
place in the imperial cabinet. After the death of the
emperor, in 1790, Albini was invited to the court of the
Elector of Mcntz, (Mayence,) and soon after was placed
at the head of the government. From 1792 to the deatli
of the elector in 1802, his prince allowed him to manage
everything ; and he proved himself worthy of the trust

a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mt; not; good; moon;

4LBINI

ALBONI

He not only showed distinguished ability in the manage
ment of all civil affairs, but also on a number of occasions
evinced military talents of a high order. Died in 1816.

Albiiii, de, cki al-bec nec, (WILLIAM,) Earl of A run-
del, the son of a Norman baron who followed William
the Conqueror to England, lie married Adelais, queen-
dowager of Henry I., by whom he obtained the castle of
Arundel and other estates. He took an active part in
those troublous times, and died in 1176, during the reign
of Henry II.

Albino, .il-bee no, (GIOVANNI,) [Lat. JOAN NES AL-
iu xL"s,J a Neapolitan statesman and historian, who lived
towards the close of the fifteenth century. He was a
counsellor to Ferdinand of Aragon, who appears to have
consulted him in military as well as in civil affairs. He
wrote a history of the events of his own time.

Al-bi-iio-va nus, (C.-uus PEDO,) a Latin poet of the
Augustan age, was a friend of Ovid, who addressed to
him one of his " Epistolae ex Ponto," (" Letters from
Pontus.") He is said to have excelled in epic poetry,
and is supposed to have written an epic poem on the
exploits of Germanicus, which is lost. There is extant
a beautiful elegy on the death of Drusus, which is as
cribed to Albinovanus.

Al-bi nus, [Gr. A/&Yoo,] a Platonic philosopher, who
lived at Smyrna about i^o A.D., was one of the teachers
of Galen. He wrote an " Introduction to the Dialogues
of Plato," which is extant.

See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Gr:eca."

Albi nus, a Roman procurator of Judea in the time
ot Nero. He succeeded Portius Festus.

Al-bi nus, [Ger. pron. al-bce nus,] (ADRIAN,) a Ger
man professor of law, born at Lauban in 1513, was a
friend of Luther. Died in 1590.

Albinus, (BERNARD,) a German physician, born at
Dessau in 1653, was appointed professor of medicine in
the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1681, and
in 1702 to the chair of anatomy at Lcyden. Died in 1721.

Albinus, (BERNARD SIEGFRIED,) an eminent Ger
man anatomist and physician, son of the preceding, was
born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1696 or 1697. He was
educated at Leyden, and on the death of his father in
1721 was unanimously chosen professor of anatomy and
surgery in the university. In 1745 he became professor
of therapeutics, and held this office till his death in 1770.
As an anatomist he was distinguished for the accuracy
ot his observations and the clearness and fulness of his
descriptions. Almost all his works are on anatomy. His
excellent " History of the Muscles of Man" (" Historia
Musculorum Hominis," 1734) is highly praised by Haller.

See BOERHAAVE, "Oratio de Vita et Obitu B. Albini," 1721;
HALLER, " Bibliotheca Anatomica."

Albinus, (CHRISTIAN BERNARD,) a brother of the
preceding, was born near the close of the seventeenth
century. He became professor of anatomy at Utrecht,
where he died in 1752.

Al-bi nus, (CLODius,) a native of Adrumctum, in
Africa, became Roman governor of Gaul about 180
A.D., and defeated the Frisian tribes beyond the Rhine.
Prompted by jealousy, the emperor Scverus endeavoured
to remove him by assassination ; but, this proving unsuc
cessful, the two leaders met in battle near Lyons. Al
binus was defeated and slain in 197. He appears to have
been at one time associated with Severus in the empire ;
at all events, he reigned three years in Gaul and Britain,
with the title of Caesar.

Albinus Flaccus. See ALCUIN.

Albinus, (FRIEDRICH BERNARD,) born at Leydcn in
1715, was a brother of Bernard Siegfried, whoirThe suc
ceeded as professor of anatomy in 1745. His chief work
is a physiological treatise "On the Nature of Man,"
(} De Natura Hominis," 1775.) Died in 1778.

Albirms, (JOHAXN GEORG,) a German poet, born at
Naumburg, was a son of an inferior poet of the same
name, (1624-79.) The son wrote in German a number
of popular idyls and hymns, a volume of which was pub
lished in 1686. He was living in 1714.

See I. B. LIEDI.ER, " Xachrichten von J. G. Albinus Leben, 1

1728.

Albinus, (or Weiss, wTss,) (PKTKUS, or PETER,) a
learned German writer and historian, who was born in I

Saxony and lived in the latter half of the sixteenth cen
tury. Died at Dresden in 1598.

Al bl-on, [Gr. A/,6tuv or AAefituv,] a fabulous giant,
regarded as a son of Neptune. He and his brother
Bergion attacked Hercules near the Rhone, and were
killed by that hero.

Albissoii, Sl be sdx , QEAX,) a French lawyer and
politician, born at Montpellier in 1732, was made tribune
in 1802. He assisted in the preparation of several por
tions of Napoleon s celebrated Code. Died in 1810.

Albitte, tl bet , (ANTOINE Louis,) a French Jacobin,
member of the Legislative Assembly in 1791, distin
guished for his violence and cruelty. He was a leader
of the desperate revolt of May 20, 1795, against the
Convention. For this he was condemned to death, but
succeeded in concealing himself till the danger was over.
He perished in the retreat from Russia in 1812, after
he had served some years as sub-inspector of reviews.

Albizzi, al-bit sce or al-bet see, a Florentine family
which occupies a considerable place in the history of
Florence during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
The most worthy of notice are PIETRO, RINALDO, and
TOMMASO ALHIZZI, noticed below.

Albizzi, [Lat. ALBICIUS, al-bish e-us,] (BARTOLOM-
MEO,) an Italian friar, born in Tuscany, was the author
of a work called " Conformities of the Life of Saint
Francis with that of Jesus Christ." Erasmus Alber pub
lished in 1542 a refutation of this work, entitled "The
Barefooted Monk s Jester and Alcoran," with a preface
by Luther. Died in 1401.

Albizzi, (PIETRO,) the leader of the Guelph party at
Florence, was put to death in 1379 by the Ghibelines.

Albizzi, (RINALDO,) a son of Tommaso, noticed be
low, born towards the close of the fourteenth century.
He became involved in an unsuccessful contest with the
family of the Medici, and died in exile at Ancona in 1452.

Albizzi, (TOMMASO,) born in 1347, was a nephew of
Pietro and father of Rinaldo. He was chief magistrate
of the republic from 1382 to 1417, which is accounted
the most glorious period in the history of Florence.
Died in 1417.

Albo, al bo, (JOSEPH, or JOSE,) an eminent Spanish
rabbi, born at Soria in the latter part of the fourteenth
century. He wrote a very able work in defence of his
religion, entitled " The Foundations of the Jewish
Faith." Died in 1428.

Al boiii, [Lat. ALROI XUS,] the son of Alduin, be
came King of the Longobards on the death of his father,
about 553. Alduin had defeated the Gepidce, who occu
pied the countries corresponding with the modern prov
inces of Slavonia and Servia. Alboin nearly extermin
ated that nation, killed Cunimund, their king, and com
pelled his daughter Rosamund to become his wife. He
next (about 570) turned his arms against the northern
provinces of Italy, and, conquering everything in his
course, excepting Mantua and Padua, advanced as far as
Spoletum, (or Spoleto.) In 573, Alboin, after drinking
deeply at a banquet at Verona, ordered a cup, which he
had made out of the skull of Cunimund, to be brought
and invited his wife Rosamund to drink out of it. This
outrage roused her to deadly vengeance. She conspired
with two of his officers, and they killed the king when
he was sunk in his afternoon sleep.

See GIBBON, "History ot" the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em
pire," chap. xlv. ; MURATORI, "Annali d ltalia."

Albon, (JACQUES.) See SAINT-ANDRE.

Albon, d , dal box , (CLAUDE CAMILLE FRANCOIS,)
a French litterateur, born at Lyons in 1753. He wrote
a discourse on the " History, Government, Arts, etc. of
some Nations of Europe," (4 vols.) Died in 1788.

Alboni, al-bo nee, (MARIETTA,) a celebrated Italian
singer, born at Cesena in 1824, was a pupil of Rossini.
She made her debut at Milan in 1841, with a success
which was repeated, or surpassed, at Vienna and Saint
Petersburg. In 1847 her performances excited great
enthusiasm in London and Paris, and a few years later
she visited the United States. Her voice is a contralto
of great purity, compass, and flexibility. " There never
existed a voice more bewitching," says M. Bousquet,
" whose tone was more limpid and sweet, whose sono

c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^ See Explanations, p. 23

ALB ONI

ALBUTIUS

rousness was more homogeneous in its different regis
ters." She was married to the Marquis de Pepoli.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge narale."
Alboni, (PAOLO,) a distinguished landscape-painter
of Bologna. He worked in Vienna from 171010 1722,
and afterwards at Bologna. Died in 1730.
Al-Borak or Al-Burak. See BORAK.
Alboresi, al-bo-ra see, (GiACOMO,) an Italian painter
of architecture, born at Bologna in 1632. He painted
(with M. Pasio) the west facade of the cathedral ot
Florence. Died in 1677.

Albornotius. See ALBORNOZ, (GiL ALVAREZ CA-
RILLO DE.)

Albornoz, al-boR-noth , (DIEGO FELIPE,) a Spanish
historian, lived about 1650, and published " Castilla Po-
litica y Cristiana," 1666.)

Albornoz, de, daal-boR-n6th , [Lat. ALBORNO TIUS,]
(GiL ALVAREZ CARILLO,) or simply .ZBgidius de Al
bornoz, a noble Spaniard, bom at Cuenca about the be
ginning of the fourteenth century. He was chaplain and
counsellor to Alfonso XI. of Castile, who raised him to
the archbishopric of Toledo. After the accession of
Pedro the Cruel to the throne, Albornoz, having incurred
his displeasure, fled to Avignon to Pope Clement VI.,
by whom he was made cardinal. Innocent VI., Clem
ent s successor, subsequently appointed him his legate,
in which capacity Albornoz showed great wisdom as
well as military skill, and in a few years recovered a
multitude of Italian towns which had become disaffected
or openly rebellious to the Papal see. He died in 1367.

See MURATORI, " Annali d ltalia;" STEPHANO, " Vita del Cardi-
nale Albornoz;" SEPULVEDA, "DeVitaet Rebus gestis G. Aibor-
notii."

Albosius, al-bo she-us, or Aillebout, fl boo or
S ye-boo , QEAN,) a French physician, born at Autun,
published in 1587 a description of a remarkable mon
strosity, (a petrified embryo,) entitled " Portentosum
Lithopsedium sive Embryon petrifactum."

Albrand, tl bRON , (FORTUNE,) a French Orientalist,
born about 1 795, planted a colony in Madagascar. Died
in 1827.

Albrecht OF AUSTRIA. See ALBERT.

Albrecht OF BAVARIA. See ALBERT.

Albrecht OF MECKLENBURG. See ALBERT.

Albrecht, (ACHILLES.) See ALBERT.

Albrecht, al bReKt, (BALTHASAR AUGUSTIN,) a Ger
man painter, born at Berg, near Munich, in 1687. Died
at Munich in 1765.

Albrecht, (JoHANN LORENZ,) a German musician
and composer, born near Muhlhausen in 1732. Died in

1773-

Albrecht, (JoHANN SEBASTIAN,) a German naturalist
and writer, born in 1695, lived at Coburg.

Albrecht, ( JOHANN WILHELM,) a German physician,
born at Erfurt in 1703, became professor of medicine in
his native town in 1729, and professor of anatomy, sur
gery, and botany in the University of Gottingen in 1 734.
Died in 1736.

Albrecht, (SOPHIE,) a German poetess, born in 1757
at Erfurt, where her father, J. P. Baumer, was professor
of medicine and philosophy. She was married at the
age of fourteen, and died in 1837. Her poems are lyric
and dramatic ; they display deep feeling and considera
ble poetic power.

Albrecht, (WILHELM,) a German agriculturist, born
in 1786, was a pupil of Thaer. In 1820 he was ap
pointed director of an experimental school of agriculture
founded at Idstein in Nassau, and afterwards removed to
Geisberg near Wiesbaden. He wrote, or edited, "The
Annals of the Agricultural Society of Nassau," (15 vols.,)
and had a high reputation as a te acher. Died in 1848.

Albrecht, (WILHELM EDUARD,) a German legist,
born at Elbing in 1800, was professor of German law at
Gottingen from 1829 to 1837. He became professor of
law at Leipsic in 1840.

Albrechtsberger, al bReKts-beRG er, (JOHANN
GEORG,) a distinguished German musician, born near
Vienna in 1736; died in 1809. The celebrated Bee
thoven was one of his pupils.

Albret, al bRi , (CHARLFS OF,) [Fr. CHARLES D AL-
BRET, shtRl da-1 bKi ,] a cousin-gcrman of Charles VI.,

appointed Constable of France in 1402. He commanded
the French army at the disastrous battle of Agincourt
in which he was defeated and slain, in 1415.

Albret, (HENRY OF.) See HENRY II. OF NA
VARRE.

Albret, (JEANNE OF.) See JEANNE OF NAVARRE.

A lbrici, al-bRee chee, (VINCENZO,) an Italian com
poser and organist, who nourished in the latter part of
the seventeenth century. He spent some time, at the
court of Christina, Queen of Sweden.

Albrion, de, da al-bRe-on , (DOMINGO,) a Spanish
sculptor, lived between 1550 and 1600. His works are
praised by Ponz.

Albrizzi. See ALBERICI.

Albrizzi, al-bRet see or al-bidt see, (ISABELLA Teo-
toki ta-o-to kee,) a daughter of Count Teotoki, was
born at Corfu about 1770. She was married to a Vene
tian nobleman ; and her house in Venice became a place
of resort for persons of distinction, both natives and
foreigners. She was distinguished for her learning, wit,
and taste, and not less for her domestic virtues. She
wrote several works of merit. Died in 1835.

Albucasis. See ABOO-L-KASIM.

Albufera, DUKE OF. See SUCHET.

Albumazar, al-boo-ma zar, (a corruption of Aboo-
Mashar,) a celebrated Arabian astronomer, born at
Bulkh (or Balkh) about 780 A.D. He died in 885, aged
above one hundred years.

Albuquerque, de, daal-boo-keR ka or al boo-keRk ,
(ALFONSO,) [Port. AFFONSO D ALBOQUERQUE, af-fon so
dal-bo-keR ka,] surnamed THE GREAT, and THE PORTU
GUESE MARS, a famous Portuguese commander, was
born of a branch of the royal family, near Alhandra, in
1453. He commanded a squadron in the fleet which
in 1506 was sent to India under Tristan da Cunha, and
carried a secret commission by virtue of which he should
supersede Francisco de Almeida as governor or viceroy
of the Indies. On his way he took Ormuz, then a great
emporium; but he was soon forced to evacuate that
place, in consequence of the defection or insubordination
of some officers of his squadron. He arrived in India
in 1508. In 1510 he captured the rich city of Goa, and
in 1511 performed a brilliant exploit in the conquest of
Malacca. He entered the Red Sea in 1513 with the
first European fleet that ever navigated its waters, and
afterwards obtained permanent possession of Ormuz.
He raised the affairs of the Portuguese in India to the
highest state of prosperity. Having, however, been su
perseded in the government of India, he died near Goa
in 1515. (See ALMEIDA.) His son wrote a history of
his campaigns, entitled " Comentarios do granclc Affonso
d Alboqucrque," Lisbon, 1557.

See, also, A. THEVET, "Vie des Hommes illustres;" LAFITAU,
"Histoire des Descouvertes, etc. des Portugais;" UARROS, "De-
cada Segunda ;" FARIA v SOUZA, "Asia Portugueza;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."

Albuquerque, de, (BRAS AFFONSO,) a son of the
preceding, was born at Alhandra in 1500. He obtained
command of a ship of war, and was afterwards " Vecdor"
or manager of the royal patrimony. 1 Ie was noted for his
integrity. He wrote a narrative of his father s exploits,
(1557.) Died in I 580.

Albuquerque, de, (DUARTK COKLIIO, cloo-ait ti ko-
6Kyo,) Marquis of Basto, served as a general in the
war against the Dutch in Brazil, 1620-39, and wrote an
account of that war, (16^4.) Died at Madrid in 1658.

Albuquerque.de, da al-boo-keR ka, (JuAN ALFONSO,)
the tutor, and afterwards minister and favourite, of Pedro
the Cruel, of Castile, was the unprincipled agent of that
monarch s perfidy and cruelty; but, having at last in
curred his displeasure, he was banished from court.
Died in 1354.

Albuquerque, de, (MATEO,) a Portuguese general,
who was appointed, in 1628, governor of the province
of Pernambuco, which he defended against the Dutch.
He was recalled to Portugal in 1635, after which he
commanded a division in the war against the Spaniards,
and gained an important victory at Campo Mayor in
1644. Died in 1646.

See SOUTHEY S "History of Brazil."

Albutius, al-bu she-us, (CAius SILAS,) a Roman ora-

a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon ;

ALBUTIUS

4LCIBIADES

tor, born in Cisalpine Gaul. He lived in the time of the
emperor Augustus.

Albutius or Albucius, (Tirus,) a Roman, who lived
about 100 li.c., distinguished by his devotion to the doc
trines of Epicurus.

Alcagoba, al-ka-so ba, or Alcazova, a Portuguese
navigator in the service of Charles V. of Germany. He
was murdered in a mutiny in 1535.

Al-ca-di nus or Alcadiiio, al-ka-dee no, a Syra-
cusan physician, who attended the emperors Henry VI.
and Frederick II. He lived about the beginning of the
thirteenth century.

Alcseus, al-see us, [Gr. A/Aa?or; Fr. ALCEE, tl sa ,] a
celebrated Greek lyric poet, a native of Mitylene, in Les
bos, flourished about 600 i;.c. He wrote in the ^-Eolic
dialect, and is said to have invented the metre called Al
caic. His odes were characterized by strong passion and
enthusiasm ; they were admired and imitated by Horace.
Among the nine lyric poets of the Alexandrian canon,
Alcanis occupied the second* or, according to some wri
ters, the first place. Quintilian expressed the opinion that
lie was often equal to Homer. Nothing remains of his
productions except a number of small fragments. Some
ot his poems were addressed to Sappho, his contempo
rary. In the contest between the nobles and the people
of Lesbos, he fought and wrote for the former.

See BODE, " Geschichte derlyrischen Dichtkunst der Hellenen," and
"Ai.KAios," in EKSCH und GRUUHK S "Allgemeine Kr.cykiopnedie."

Alcaeus, a comic poet, a native of Mitylene, contended
in 388 li.c. with Aristophanes for the prize which the lat
ter gained by his " Plutus."

Alceeus OF M ESSEN E, author of a number of epigrams
in the Greek Anthology, lived about 210 li.c. He wrote
epigrams against Philip III. of Macedonia.

Alcaforadajal-ka-fo-ra da, (MAKi ANNA,) a Portuguese
nun, who, about 1662, conceived a passion for a French
marquis (Dc Chamilly) who is noticed in this work. Her
letters to him were published in a French version, ("Let-
tres Portugaiscs," 1669,) and were much admired. He
did not return her affection, and appears to have published
them to gratify his vanity.

Alcaforado, al-ka-fo-ra do, (FRANCISCO,) a Portu
guese who took part in the expedition which discovered
Madeira in 1420 and wrote a narrative of the discovery.

Alcala, al-ka-la , (Don Parafau de Rivera pa
ra-fan da re-va/ra,) DuKEOF, bornin 1508, was Viceroy
of Naples under Philip II. Died in 1571.

Alcala y Herrera, de, da al-ka-la/ e cr-ra ra, (AL
FONSO,) a Spanish poet and novelist, who lived in the
early part of the sixteenth century. He wrote a novel
called "The Two Suns of Toledo," (1641,) in which the
letter a was not used.

Al-cam e-iies, [Gr. A/l/ca^et^c; Fr. AI.CAMENE, fK-
kt man , | one of the most distinguished sculptors of
antiquity, was a native of Athens, and flourished in the
fifth century i;.c. According to Pausanias, he was living
in 400 i:.c. He was a pupil of Phidias. His most cele
brated work was a statue of Venus, (now lost,) known as
" Venus of the Gardens." He is considered to have been
second to no Greek sculptor of his age except Phidias.

Alcamo, d , dal ka-mo, (CIULLO,) a Sicilian, who lived
near the close of the twelfth century; supposed to be the
earliest writer of Italian poetry.

Alcantara, de, da al-kili/ta-ra, (DIEGO,) a Spanish
architect, employed by Philip II. Died in 1587.

Alcantara, de, (San PEDRO,) a Spanish zealot, who
founded a monastic order in the sixteenth century. He
was born at Alcantara in 1499. Died in 1562. His peni
tential austerities were almost incredible. For nearly
forty years, it is said, his daily allowance of sleep was
less than two hours.

Al-cath o-us, a son of Pelops, married the daughter
of the King of Megara, and afterwards became himself
king of that city.

Alcazar or Alca9ar, al-ka thau or al-ka sar, (AN
DRES,) an eminent Spanish surgeon, who lived in the
latter part of the sixteenth century. He was professor
of surgery in the University of Salamanca. His most
important work was a treatise on syphilis.

* The FIRST place being accorded to AI.CMAN, (which see. 1 )

Alcazar, de, da al-ka thaR, (BALTAZAR,) a Spanish
poet, who lived at Seville about 1600. He composed
many " redondillas," and was highly commended by Cer
vantes in his "Canto de Caliope."

See LONGFELLOW S "Poets and Poetry of Kurope."

Alcazar, de, written also Alcasar, (Luis,) a Span
ish Jesuit, born at Seville in 1554. lie wrote on the
Apocalypse. Died in 1613.

Alcazova. See ALCACOKA.

Alcedo, de, da al-sa uo, (ANTONIO,) a native of
Spanish America, published at Madrid in 1786 a valu
able work on the geography of America, " Diccionario
Geografico-historico de las Jndias Occidentals b Ame
rica," (5 vols.) Scarcely anything is known of his life.

Alcee. See ALC/EUS.

Al-^es tis, [Gr. "A/./a/crrif or AA/ct or?/ ; Fr. ALCESTE,
Sl scst ,] the daughter of Pelias and wife of Admetus,
King of Thessaly, is fabled to have prevented the death
of her husband by offering to die for him. Tradition
adds that she was rescued from the realms of death by
Hercules. The story of her heroic devotion forms the
subject of one of the best tragedies of Euripides.

Al ce-tas [Gr. A/./a -ac] L, King of Epirus, was an
ally of the Athenians. He reigned about 375 li.c.

Al cetas II., King of Epirus, was a grandson of Al-
cetas I. He was killed by his own subjects, and was
succeeded by Pyrrhus.

Al cetas, a brother of Perdiccas, the favourite of
Alexander the Great. After the death of his brother,
321 li.c., he killed himself, to avoid falling into the hands
of Antigonus. (Sec PERDICCAS.)

Alchabitius, al-ka-bish e-us, [Arab. AKDALAZEEZ
or AUDALAZiz,] an Arabian astrologer, who lived at
Aleppo about the middle of the tenth century.

Alchfred. Sec ALFRED.

Al-ehin dus or Al-kin dus, [Arab. AL-KIN DEE or
ALKINDI,] a noted Arabian astrologer, physician, and
writer, born about the end of the eighth century. He
lived at the court of Al-Mamoon, Caliph of Bagdad. He
wrote many works, in one of which he pretended to
explain the action of medicines by the principles of
mathematics and music.

Alciati, al-cha tce, |Fr. ALCIAT, fl se-t ,] (ANDREA,)
a celebrated lawyer of Milan, born in 1492. lie became
professor of law in the University of Avignon in 1518,
and afterwards filled the same chair in Bourges, (1528
to 1532,) and subsequently in Bologna, Pavia, and Fer-
rara. He died at Pavia in 1550. Though possessed of
popular and brilliant talents, he was far from being a
profound jurist. He left "Commentaries on the Digest,"
and many other legal works.

"Alciati," says liallam, "was the first who taught the
lawyers to write with purity and elegance. Erasmus has
applied to him the eulogy of Cicero on Scaevola, that he
\vas the most juiisprudent of orators and the most elo
quent of lawyers." (See "Introduction to the Literature
of Europe.")

See "Vita Alciati," prefixed to his " Emblemata," published by
CLAUDE MIGNAULT in 1581; MAZZUCHELLI, "Scrittori d ltalia."

Alciati, (FRANCESCO,) a nephew of the preceding,
and tutor to the celebrated Saint Carlo Borromeo, born
in 1522, was made cardinal in 1565. Died in 1580.

Alciati, (GIOVANNI PAOLO,) an Italian Protestant of
the sixteenth century, who was accused, or at least
strongly suspected, of heresy by Calvin and other re
formers, in consequence of which he retired to Dantzic,
where he died about 1570.

Alciati, (TERENZIO,) a learned Jesuit, born at Rome
in 1570. He taught divinity for seventeen years in the
Jesuits College at Rome, and wrote several works on
theology. Died in 1651.

Alcibiades, al-sc-bl a-diz, written also Alkibi ades,
[Gr. A/.Ki6uu^ir : Fr. ALCIBIADE, Itl se be a d ; Ger. AL-
ciiiiADES, alt-se-bee a-des,] a celebrated Athenian, son
of Clcinias, was born about 450 n.c. He seemed to
combine all the gifts of nature and of fortune. He was
descended from the noblest families and inherited one
of the largest estates of Athens. He possessed remark
able personal beauty, and an intellect of wonderful
strength and versatility. The ward of Pericles, and the

as /; 5 as s; g hard; gasy; c, u, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled: s as z ; th as in this. (2JP" See Explanations, p. 23.)

ALCIDAMAS

ALCYONE

favourite pupil and companion of Socrates, he enjoyed
unequalled opportunities for cultivating his talents to
the highest degree. Yet all these advantages were ren
dered futile or pernicious by his fickleness and want of
virtue. He was elected one of the board of generals in
419 B.C., and became the leader of the democratic party.
Through his intrigues and counsels, the Athenians were
involved in a war with Sparta and Syracuse, 414 u.c.
About the time he was to sail for Sicily with the fleet,
(in the command of which Nicias was associated with
him,) he was accused of an act of sacrilege which had
been recently committed, and was afterwards condemned
in his absence. Upon this he joined the enemies of his
country, and by his counsels contributed powerfully,
though indirectly, to the destruction of the Athenian
army in Sicily in 413. (See NICIAS.) Having quarrelled
with the Spartans, he W.-LS recalled by the tickle popu
lace of Athens in 411, and was again intrusted with the
command of the fleet. Under his conduct the Athe
nians gained several signal victories, at Cynossema and
Abydos in 411 B.C., at Cyzicus in 410; and in the two
following years they acquired Chalcedon and Byzan
tium. But subsequently he made an unsuccessful at
tempt on the island of Anclros, and soon after his lieu
tenant in his absence was defeated at Notium, near
Ephesus. He was superseded in the command of the
fleet, and retired into Thrace, for he thought it unsafe to
return to Athens. After the fall of Athens and the es
tablishment of the rule of the thirty tyrants, he with
drew into Asia, where he was honourably received by the.
satrap Pharnabazos. Not long after, the house in which
he slept was attacked at night by a body of men, who
set it on fire, and when he rushed out, sword in hand,
dispatched him with darts and arrows, 404 K.C. It is
not known whether this deed was done at the instigation
of his public or his private enemies.

See his life in PLUTARCH ; GROTE, " History of Greece," vol. viii.
chaps. Ixii. to Ixiv., also Ixvi. ; THIRLWALL, " History of Greece ;"
A. G. MEISSNER, "Alcibiades,"4vols., 1785-85; J. H. JOANIN, " His-
toire d Alcibiades," 1819; HERTZBEKG, " Alkibiades der Staatsmann
imd Feldlierr," Halle, 1853; W. VISCHER, " Alcibiades und Lysan-
dros,"iS45; XENOPHOM, " Hellenica ;" THUCYDIDES, "History."

Al-gid a-mas, [ AA/c5u/iaf,] a Greek rhetorician, who
lived about 400 K.C. He was a native of Eloea, in Asia
Minor.

Alcides. See HKRCULES.

Al-gi de, [Gr. Altaic; Fr. ALCIDK, tKs6d ,] a
name of Hercules, supposed to have been derived from
the Greek /k/?, (alke,) "strength."

Al-gim a-ehus, [ AA/a /w^of,] a Greek painter, sup
posed to have lived in the time of Alexander the Great.

Alcime. See ALCIMUS.

Al-gim e-iies, [ A/l/auei;?7f,] a Greek comic poet, who
is supposed to have lived at Athens about 500 K.C.

Al ci-mus, [Gr. "Alw^oc; Fr. ALCfME, Sl seni ,] (called
also Ja-gi mus [Gr. I/c,uoc] or Jo a-ehim,) a Jewish
high-priest, contemporary with Judas Maccabaeus. He
apostatized and joined Demetrius.

See I. Maccabees vii., ix.

Al gi-mus A-le thi-us, a Latin writer and rhetori
cian of the fourth century. He lived in Burdigala, (Bor
deaux.)

Al-giii o-us, [Gr. A/i/a cooc,] a king of the Phasacians,
whose beautiful gardens, described by Homer in the
Odyssey, have afforded a favourite theme for other poets.
He reigned in the island of Scheria, (now Corfu.)

Alcinous, a Greek philosopher, who wrote an intro
duction to the philosophy of Plato. He is supposed to
have flourished in the time of the early Roman em
perors.

Alcioiiio, (PIETRO.) See ALCYONIUS.

Al/gi-phrpn, [ A^K%&gt;uv,] a Greek epistolary writer,
supposed to have lived about 200 A.D. His works are
interesting as exhibiting a picture of the domestic life of
that period. The number of his letters is above seventy.
His language is elegant and purely Attic.

Alcmaeon, alk-mce on, [Gr. \faiiw.uv; Fr. ALC-
MEON, f Ik ma oN ,] a son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle,
renowned as the leader of the Epigoni in their successful
expedition against Thebes.

Alcmae on, [Gr. AA/c^a/wv,] a natural philosopher,
native of Crotona, lived in the sixth century B.C., and

was a pupil of Pythagoras. He is said to have been the
first who dissected animals in order to study anatomy.

Alcmaeon, (the lyric poet.) See ALCMAN.

Alcmseoiiidce, alk-me-on I-de, [Gr. AA/c/zajvtJ(M,]
one of the most distinguished of the noble families ol
Athens.

Alcmaii, alk man, [Gr. A/i/c^ai ,] called Alcmee on
[ \/.K/j.aiuv] by the later Greek writers, the chief lyric
poet of Sparta, flourished about 650 i;.c. He was origin
ally a Lydian slave, born at Sardis, and was emanci
pated in his youth and nationalized by the Spartans. He
wrote Parthenia, pecans, bridal hymns, and other poems,
which were highly prized by the ancients. Some beau
tiful fragments of his works are extant. He was con
sidered by some ancient writers the inventor of erotic
poetry. To Alcman was assigned the first place in the
canon of lyric poets, by the Alexandrian grammarians.

See SCIIOELL, "Histoire de la Literature Grecque."

Alcmeiie, alk-mce ne, or Alc-me iia, [Gr. A?,/c-
PJVTJ ; FY. ALCMENE, ftlk m.in ,] the daughter of Elec-
tryon, King of Mycenae, and wife of Amphitryon. She
bore Hercules to Jupiter, who, it is said, in the absence
of her husband, deceived her by assuming the form of
Amphitryon.

Alcock or Alcok, aul kok, (JoHN,) a native of York
shire, England, was sent as ambassador by Edward IV.
to John II. of Castile, and afterwards became success
ively Bishop of Rochester, of Worcester, and of Ely. He
was also tutor to Prince Edward of Wales, and president
of his council. He held the chancellorship a short time
under both Edward IV. and Henry VIII. Died in 1500.
He was a patron of learning, and founded Jesus College,
Cambridge.

Alcock, (JOHN,) an English musical composer, born
in London in 1715. Died in 1806.

Alcock, (THOMAS,) an English surgeon, born in 1784 ;
died in 1833.

Al con |*A/AM?&gt;] or Al co, a Greek statuary of un
known epoch, noted for having made an iron statue of
Hercules.

Alcott, aul kot, (AMOS BRONSON,) an American
writer on education, born in Wolcott, Connecticut, in
1799.

Alcott, (WILLIAM A.,) M.D., an American reformer
and educational writer, born in Wolcott, Connecticut, in
1798. He studied medicine at New Haven, but, after
following the profession for a few years, united with Wil
liam C. Woodbridge in the preparation of his school
geographies and atlases, and in editing the "Annals of
Education," etc. He has since laboured zealously in the
cause of educational reforms, and lectured extensively on
the best modes of instruction, hygiene, physiology, etc.
Besides editing and contributing to various journals, he
has published many volumes on educational and kindred
subjects. Some of his works have enjoyed a great popu
larity, especially "The House I Live in ;" "The Young
Man s Guide;" " The Young Woman s Guide;" "The
Young Mother;" "The Young Housekeeper," etc.

Alcuin, al kwin, or Al cwiii, an English prelate, who
passes for the most learned man of his age, and whose full
name was Fiac cus Albi iius Alcui nus, was born
at York about 735 A.D. About 780 he accepted an in
vitation to the court of Charlemagne, with whom he lived
thenceforth on terms of intimate friendship. The court
of that monarch, it is said, became a school of which
Alcuin was the head. According to some writers, he
founded schools at Aix-la-Chapelle and Paris. He was
appointed in 796 abbot of St. I^airtin at Tours, where he
died in 804. He left many epistles, poems, and theo
logical works, which are among the best specimens of
mediaeval Latinity. A life of Alcuin, by Professor F.
Lorenz, of Halle, has been translated into English,

(1837-)

See also BAHR, " Geschichte der Romischen Literatur;" "Bio-
graphia Britannica Literaria," 1842.

Alcyone (al-sl o-ne) or Hal-gy o-iie, [Gr. AA-
Kvovrj,] (Myth.,) a daughter of /Eolus, who became the wife
of Ceyx. They were remarkable for their mutual and de
voted love. Ceyx having perished in a storm at sea,
Alcyone, overcome by grief and despair, threw herself
into the waves. To reward their conjugal devotion, the

a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, c, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;

JLCl ONIUS

ALDR1CH

gods transformed them into kingfishers. The sea, as
ancient writers tell us, is always calm and the weather
delightful during the period in which these birds build
their nests and hatch their young: hence the origin of
the expression "halcyon days," signifying those of peace
and happiness.

Al-gy-o m-xis or Al-gi-o m-us, (PKTRUS,) [It. Ai.-
CIO.NIO, al-cho nc-o, PIKTKO, ] a distinguished Italian
scholar, was born at Venice about 1490. He translated
into elegant Latin several works of Aristotle, and be
came professor of Greek at Florence about 1521. His
most celebrated work is "Medices Legatus de Exsilio,"
(1522,) a dissertation on Exile. He was erroneously
suspected of having taken the finest passages of this
work from Cicero s lost treatise on Glory. He died in
Rome in 1527.

Sj;c MAZZUCHELLI, " Scrittori d ltalia ;" PAOI.O Giovio, " Elogia
Virorum illustrium," .Bale, 1677.

Al-Damiri. See ADDEMEEREE.

Alday, aul dc, (JoiiN,) an English translator, of
whom little is known. He translated a popular French
work by Boaistuau, (or Boistuau,) entitled " The Theatre
of the World," ("Theatrum Mundi," 1581.)

Aide, van, vfn al deh, (HENDRIK,) a Dutch painter
and engraver, lived at Amsterdam about 1650.

Aldebert. See ADALHERT.

Aldegati, al-da-ga tee, (MARCO or MARCANTONIO,)
an Italian poet, born at Mantua, lived in the latter part
of the fifteenth century.

Aldegonde, SAINT. See MAKNIX, (Piiii.ii&gt; VAX.)

Aldegrever, al deh-gRa ver, or Aldegraef, al deh-
gRCf , (HEINRICH,) an eminent German painter and en
graver, born at Soest, Westphalia, in 1502, was a pupil
of Albert Diirer, whose style he closely imitated. He
left a great number of engravings, mostly from his own
designs. They are finely executed in the Gothic style.
Among his plates are "Susanna and the Elders ;" "The
Labours of Hercules ;" and portraits of Luther and Me-
lanchthon. His paintings are not numerous. Died about
1562.

Aldeguela, de, da al-di-ga la, (TosKF or JOSE MAR
TIN,) a Spanish architect, born in 1730; died in 1802.

Al-Demiri. See ADDEMEEREE.

Alden, aul den, (JoiiN,) one of the first settlers of
Plymouth, Massachusetts, came over in the Mayflower
in 1620. He was a magistrate in that colony for more
than fifty years. He forms one of the principal charac
ters in Longfellow s poem on "Miles Standish s Court
ship." Died in 1687, aged about eighty-nine.

Alden, (TIMOTHY,) an American clergyman, born in
Massachusetts in 1771, was the founder and first presi
dent of Alleghany College, Meadville, Pennsylvania.
He published a collection of epitaphs and inscriptions,
in 5 vols. Died in 1839.

Alderete, de, da al-da-ra ta, or Aldrete, ai-dRa ta,
(BERNARDO,) a learned Spanish writer and priest, born
at Malaga about 1550. He was distinguished for his
knowledge of Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek, and was re
puted one of the best Spanish writers of his time.
Among his works is " The Origin and Principles of the
Castilian Language," (1606,) which, says Gayangos, is
the best on that subject. The date of his death "is un
known.

Alderete, de, (DIEGO GRACIAN,) a Spanish Hellenist
of the sixteenth century, was employed as private secre
tary by Charles V. and by Philip II., at whose court he
enjoyed great favour. He made good Spanish versions
of Xenophon, (1552,) Thucydides, (1554,) and other
Greek writers. He died at an advanced age about 1590.

Alderete, de, (Jo.SE,) a younger brother of Bernardo,
noticed above, was rector of the College of Granada, and
author of a treatise " De Religiosa Disciplina tuenda,"
(1615.) Died in 1616, aged about fifty-six.

See N. ANTONIO, " Bibliothecn Hisjuna Nova."

Alderoti, al-di-ro tee, (TADDEO,) a celebrated phy
sician, and a friend of Dante, was born at Florence in
1215. Died in 1295.

See VIM.ANI, " Vie d Alderoti."

Alderson, aul der-son, (JoiiN,) M.D., a distinguished
English physician, born in Suffolk in 1758, practised in
Hull. Died in 1829.

Aldhelm, ald helm, SAINT, a distinguished Saxon
ecclesiastic, born about the middle of the seventh cen
tury. He was made Bishop of Sherborn in 705, and
died in 709.

Aldigieri. Sec ALTICHERIO.

Aldini, al-dee nee, (ANTONIO,) COUNT, an Italian
statesman, born at Bologna in 1756, was a nephew of
Galvani. Having become a political friend of Bonaparte,
he was chosen president of the Council of State of the
Cisalpine Republic, and in 1805 secretary of state in
the kingdom of Italy. He continued to live at Milan
after it passed into the power of Austria. Died in 1826.

Aldini, (GIOVANNI,) a distinguished natural philoso
pher, nephew of the celebrated Galvani, and brother oi
the preceding, was born at Bologna in 1762. In 1798
he was appointed professor of physics in the university
of his "native city. In 1807 he became a member of the
council of state at Milan, and Knight of the Iron Crown,
Died in 1834. He has left essays on galvanism, steam,
the hydraulic lever, and other subjects.

See Tii ALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri."

Aldini, (ToBiA,) an Italian botanist of Cesena, wrote
a " Description of the Garden of Cardinal Farnese at
Rome," (1625.)

Aldobrandini, al-do-bRan-dee nee, (CiNZio,) a
nephew of Pope Clement VIII., born at Sinigaglia, be
came cardinal in 1593. He was a friend of Tasso, who
dedicated to him his "Jerusalem Delivered," (" Gerusa-
lemme Liberata.")

Aldobrandini, (SILVESTRO,) a learned Italian jurist,
born in 1499. He was for some years professor of law
at Pisa. Died in 1558. His son Ippolito became pope
in 1592. (See CLEMENT VIII.) He had a son, Gio
vanni, and two grandsons, Pietro and Cinzio, (noticed
above,) who became cardinals.

Aldobrandini, (TOMMASO,) a son of Silvestro, born
at Rome about 1540, was a brother of Clement VIII.
He produced a translation of Diogenes Laertius, (1594.)
He died in the prime of life.

Aldobrandino, al-do-bRan-dee no, (called FIOREN-
TINO, or the "Florentine,") an Italian physician, prac
tised at Sienna, and died at Florence in 1327.

Aldo Manuzio. See MANUTIUS.

Aldred, al drcd or al drcd, surnamed THE GLOSSER,
[Lat. GLOSSA TOR,] an Anglo-Saxon writer, author of
the " Book of Durham," lived about 800 A.D.

Aldred, al dred, [Lat. ALDRE DUS, called also AL-
RE DUS and EALRE DUS,] an archbishop of York in the
eleventh century. He enjoyed high favour with Ed
ward the Confessor. In 1066 William the Conqueror
was crowned by him. Died in 1069.

Aldrete. See ALDERETE.

Aldric, al drik, [Lat. AI.DRI CUS,] SAINT, was born in
France about 800. He was elected to the bishopric of
Le Mans in 832, in which office he acquired the highest
character for wisdom and sanctity. Died about 856.

Aldrich, aukl ritch or auld rij, (HENRY,) D.D., an
eminent English scholar and divine, born at Westmin
ster in 1647, was educated at Oxford. He became a tutcr
of the college of Christ Church, and edited several
Greek classics. In the reign of James II. he was one
of the most able defenders of the Protestant cause. He
was appointed dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1689.
He possessed great skill in music, and composed numer
ous services and anthems which are used in the English
cathedrals. His " Compendium of the Art of Logic"
("Artis Logica? Compendium") was extensively used in
England until the publication of Whately s "Elements
of Logic" in 1826.

See MACAUI.AY S "History of England," vol. iii. ch. xiv.;
HAWKINS S "History of Music."

Aldrich, auld ritch, (JAMES,) an American poet and
journalist, born in Suffolk county, New York, in 1810.
He at first engaged in mercantile pursuits, but subse
quently devoted himself entirely to literature. Died in
1856. He edited several popular periodicals, and was
author of numerous poems.

See GRISWOI.LJ S "Poets and Poetry of America."
Aldrich or Aldridge, auld rij, (ROBERT,) born in
Buckinghamshire, England, became Bishop of Carlisle
in 1537, and died in 1555.

c as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; c, u, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

ALDRICH

ALEE BET

Aldrich, (THOMAS BAILEY,) an American poet, and
assistant editor of the " New York Home Journal,"
was born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1836. He
is author of " Miscellaneous Poems," " The Course of
True Love Never Did Run Smooth," etc.

Aldridge, auld rlj, (!RA,) a negro tragedian, born
near Baltimore, in Maryland, about 1810. He early ex
hibited uncommon powers of mind, acquiring knowledge
with great facility, and learning, among other things, to
speak the German language. Having attracted the
notice of Kean, the eminent tragedian, he accompanied
him, as an attendant, to Europe, and at Belfast appeared
on the stage in the character of Othello to Kean s lago.
He subsequently rose to distinction as an actor, person
ating with great success a wide range of characters,
both in Great Britain and on the continent. Particular
honours were conferred on him by the King of Prussia
and the Emperor of Austria, and in 1857 the King of
Sweden invited him to visit Stockholm. Died in 1867.

See "Leben und Kiinstlerlaufbahn des Negers I. Aldrige," Ber
lin, 1852.

Aldrighetti, al-dRe-get tee, an Italian physician and
medical writer, born at Padua in 1573; died in 1631.

Aldringer, alt ring-er, or Altringer, (JoiiANN,) an
officer in the Thirty Years War, was born in the duchy
of Luxemburg, of an obscure family. From a common
soldier in the Imperial (Austrian) army, he rose gradu
ally to the highest rank, and after the death of Tilly, in
1632, was made field-marshal. He was killed while de
fending the bridge of Landshut against the Swedes in
1634.

Aldrovande. See ALDKOVANDUS.

Aldrovandi. See ALUROVANDUS.

Aldrovandini, al-dRo-van-dee nce, a family of artists
who lived in Bologna in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. The most celebrated were the following :

Aldrovandiui, (POMPEO AGOSTINO,) born in 1677,
died in 1739. Like the others of his family, he was dis
tinguished as an architectural and decorative painter.
He painted in oil and fresco, in Vienna, Dresden, and
Italy.

Aldrovandini, (TOMMASO,) a painter of Bologna,
born in 1653, was a cousin of the preceding. Died in
1736.

Al-dro-van dus, [Fr. ALDROVANDK, tl dRo vSNd ;
It. ALDROVANDI, al-diio-van dee,] (ULYSSES,) a great
Italian naturalist, born of a noble family, at Bologna,
about 1524. Having studied botany, medicine, and other
sciences, he graduated in medicine in 1553, and obtained
the chair of natural history at Bologna in 1560. He pur
sued his favourite studies with unremitting zeal, and spent
his fortune in collecting specimens and procuring en
gravings by the best artists. The result of his labours is
a "Natural History," in 13 volumes, of which four ap
peared during his life. He published three volumes on
Birds, 1599-1603, and one volume on Insects, 1602. The
other, volumes were edited by various persons. His
works are praised for their completeness, but are defi
cient in scientific arrangement and condensation. "The
book of Aldrovandus," says Cuvicr, " can only be re
garded as an enormous compilation, without taste or ge
nius : the plan and materials of it are in a great measure
borrowed from Gesner." Died at Bologna in 1607.
Buffon praises the method of Aldrovandus and his
fidelity of description.

See FANTUZZI, " Memorie della Vita d Ulisse Aldrovandi," 1774;
HAI.USR, " Bibliotheca Botauica ;" JOCHER, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-
Lexikon."

Alduiii, akl win, [Lat. ALDUI NUS or ALDOVI NUS,]
written also Aud win, Aud oin, and sometimes
Hieldui mis, the first king of the second dynasty of
Longobards or Lombards, reigned about the middle of
the sixth century. The emperor Justinian made an alli
ance with him, and gave him Pannonia, (now the south
western part of Hungary,) and the Longobard king sent
him in return 5 mercenaries to fight in the imperial
army. (See ALISOIN.)

Alduinus. See ALDUIN.

Aldus Manutius. See MANUTIUS.

Ale, a lch, (Koimus,) a Flemish painter, who was
born at Liege, and worked at Rome. Died in 1689.

Aleander and Aleandre. See ALEANDRO.

Aleandro, a-la-an dko, [Lat. ALEAN DER ; Fr. AL^-
ANDRE, t la ONdR ,] (GiROLAMO,) a distinguished Italian
scholar, born near Friuli in 1480, was reputed one of the
most learned men of his time. He became professor of
belles-lettres in the University of Paris in 1508, and libra
rian of the Vatican in 1519. In 1520 he was sent by Pope
Leo X. as nuncio to Germany, to oppose the doctrines
of Luther, against whom he showed a violent hostility.
He was the redacteur of the edict against Luther which
the emperor and diet adopted. In 1525 he was taken
prisoner at Pavia with Francis I., whom he had accom
panied as nuncio. He was made a cardinal in 1538, and
died in 1 542, leaving an unfinished work on holding coun
cils, (" De Concilio habendo.")

See D AuBiGN E, "History of the Reformation;" MAZZUCHELLI,
"Scrittori d ltalia;" A. VICTOREI.U, " Vie d Aleandre," in a collec
tion of lives of Pontiffs, published at Rome in 1630, 2 vols.

Aleandro, (GIROLAMO the younger,) a very learned
Italian poet and antiquary, born in Friuli in 1574, was a
grand-nephew of the preceding. lie was remarkable for
the precocity of his intellect, and composed, at the age of
sixteen, seven beautiful odes, called " The Tears of Peni
tence," (" Le Lagrime di Penitenza.") He was for about
twenty years secretary to Cardinal Banclini, at Rome.
He was also for some time secretary to Pope Urban
VIII. Among his works are " Penitential Psalms," (in
Latin. 1593,) and an antiquarian treatise entitled "An-
tiqure Tabulae Marmorese," etc., (1616.) Died in 1629.

See MAZZUCHEI.U, "Scritiori d ltalia;" GASPARO DE SIMKOM,
"In morte di G. Aleandro orax.ione," 1636.

Aleaume, I la om , (Louis,) a French litterateur,
born in 1525, died in 1596. He wrote Latin verses.

Alecto. See EUMENIDES.

Alee or All, a lec, or Ali-Ibn-Abi-Talib, a lee Tb n
a bee ta lib, (i.e. "Alee the son of Aboo-Talib :" see note
to ABOOLFKDA, on page 35,) surnamcd THE LION 01-
GOD, an Arabian caliph, born at Mecca about 600 A.D.,
was a cousin-german of the prophet Mohammed. He
was one of the first to embrace the new faith, which he
afterwards defended with unequalled zeal and valour.
He married Fatimah, a daughter of Mohammed. Upon
the death of the prophet in 632, Alec and Aboo-Beki
were rival candidates for the succession, which the latter
obtained. This contest was the origin of the great
schism between the Soonnites (orthodox) and Sheeites,
the latter of whom were partisans of Alec. On the
death of Othman in 655, Alee became caliph ; but he was
obliged to maintain his cause in battle against Moa-
weeyeh, a powerful rival. Three fanatics conspired to
assassinate both of these rivals in order to end the war.
and Alee was killed by one of them in 660. A.D. He left
a son, Hassan, who became caliph. Alee is a popular
hero, especially with the Persians, who belong to the
sect of Sheeites. He is also celebrated as an author of
maxims and sentences.

See IRVING, "Mahomet and his Successors," vol. ii. ; WEIL.
"Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap, iv.; OCKI.EY. " History of
the Siracens;" ELMACIN, " Historia Saracenica ;" D HERBELOT,
" Bibliotheque Orientale ;" Noiii. DES VERGERS, " Histoire de 1" Ara
bic," 1846.

Alee or All, ( Abool-Hassan, a bool has san,) King
of Granada, ascended the throne in 1466. He renewed
the war against Ferdinand and Isabella in 1481, and was
defeated at Alhama. In 1482 his subjects revolted, and
proclaimed his son Boabdil, or Aboo-Abclillah, king.
Alee died soon after that date.

Alee, All, or Aali, .Vice, a Turkish historian, who
wrote a history of the Ottoman Empire. Died in 1597.

Alee- (or All-) ar-Ridha, a lec ar-rld l, a descendant
of Alee the son-in-law of Mohammed, born in 758 A.D.,
was considered one of the legitimate successors of the
prophet. He married a daughter of the caliph Al-Ma-
moon. Died in 819.

Alee Beg, (of Poland.) See ALT BEG.

Alee-Bestamee or Ali-Bestami, a lee bes-ta mec,
a famous sheikh and learned Mohammedan writer, born
at Herat in 1400. He came to Turkey in 1443, and re
sided at the court of the sultan Mahomet II. He wrote
on ethics, grammar, philosophy, etc. Died in 1470.

Alee (or All) Bey, a lee ba, or Alee Beg, a Mam-

ALEE-CHORLEELEE

ALE M AND

el ukc chief, was born in 1728,011 or near Mount Caucasus.
Having been taken to Cairo when a child, he was sold to
an officer of the Janissaries, who adopted and educated
him. He soon distinguished himself by his courage and
ability. Having at length got possession of the chief
power in Egypt in 1768, he aimed to make it an inde
pendent kingdom. In 1770 he attempted to conquer
Palestine and Syria from the Turks, which led to a long
contest, in which Alee was at length slain in 1776.

Alee-Chor-lee lee, (or Ali-Chorlili,) sometimes
written -Chourlouli, a vizier of Sultan Ahmed III.
during the time that Charles XII. of Sweden was in
Turkey in 1709-10. He was an enemy of Charles XII.
Died in 1711, aged about forty.

Alee-Ibn-Hammood, or Ali-Ibn-Hammoud, (or
-Hammud,) a lee Tb n ham-mood , the founder of the
dynasty of Ilammood ites in Spain. He defeated in bat
tle and killed Suleiman, an aspirant to the throne. Died
in 1017.

Alee-Ibiiool-Abbas, or Ali-Ibiiu-1-Abbas, a lee
il/nool al/bSs , (often called Haly Abbas,) a cele
brated Arabian physician, who was probably a native of
Persia, and died about 994. Little is known of the
events of his life. His work, commonly known as
" Royal Book," (" Liber Regius,") is considered by some
as the best or most complete treatise on medicine which
has come down to us from ancient times.

Alee- (or All-) Ibii-Rodhwaii, a lee Ib n rod wan ,
(often called Haly Rodoan,) a noted Arabian physician,
born near Cairo in Egypt, flourished in the early part of
the eleventh century.

Alee-Ibn-Saeed, (or Ali-Ibn-Said,) a lee Tb n
sa ecd , a distinguished Mohammedan geographer and
historian, born at Granada in 1214; died about 1286.

Alee- (or All-) Ibn-Yoonas, (-Yunas or-Younis,)
a lee Tb n yoo nas, surnamed Ali ooL HAS SAN, an emi
nent Arabian astronomer, born at Cairo. He was author
of astronomical tables, which were considered the best
in the language. Died in 1008.

Alee- (or All-) Ibn- (Ben-) Yoosuf, (or -Yusuf,)
a lee Tb n yoo sdof, a sultan of Africa and Spain of the
Almoravide dynasty, began to reign in 1107. He waged
war against the Christian princes of Spain, who captured
a number of his cities. Died in 1142-3.

A lee-Koo jee, [Gcr. spelling, ALI Kunscm,] an
Ottoman astronomer, who lived at Constantinople. Died
in 1474.

Alee-Koolee- (or Ali-Kuli-) Khan, a lee koo Iee
K5n, a nephew of the famous Nadir Shah of Persia,
succeeded that monarch in 1747. He was dethroned
and deprived of sight in 1 748.

A lee-Mo-ez-zeen , (Ali-Moezzin or -Muezzin,)
Kapudan Pasha under Sultan Selim I., was defeated
and killed in the great naval battle of Lepanto, (1571,)
where he commanded the Turkish fleet.

Alee- (All-) Mustafa-Ben-Ahmed, a lee moos ta-fa
ben ail med, an excellent Turkish historian and indif
ferent poet, born at Gallipoli in 1542. His chief work
is a universal history, called "Mine of Information."
Died in 1599.

Alee-Sheer-Ameer, or Ali-Shir-Amir, a lee sheer
a-meer , a Persian poet and statesman, born about 1440.
lie became vizier or prime minister of Sultan Husain
of Persia about 1470. He has been styled the Mae
cenas of his age and country, and had a high reputation
as a poet. Died about 1500.

Alee-Welee-Zade, or Ali-Weli-Zade, a lee wel ee
za deh, surnamed ARSLAN, aRs-liki , (i.e. the " Lion,") and
commonly called Alee (or All) Pasha, was born at Tep-
alcen, or Tepalcn, in Albania, about 1750. He began his
career as a robber. At one time, when he was in a state of
extreme destitution, after having sold his sword to avoid
starvation, he accidentally discovered, partially buried
in the earth, a large iron box filled with gold. With this
he levied two thousand Albanian soldiers. From this
time forward fortune seemed to smile upon almost all
his enterprises. He possessed extraordinary courage,
shrewdness, and strength of mind, and well knew how
to take advantage of the weakness of the Porte, and of
the troubles in which it was involved with the surround
ing nations. In return for his services in the war against

e as k; 5 as s; g harJ; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s ass; th as in this,

Austria and Russia, the sultan appointed him Pasha of
Trikala in 1787. Soon after, by intrigue, bribery, and
force, he caused himself to be declared Pasha of Yanina,
(Janina,) by which title he is generally known. He sub
sequently rose, step by step, to be the most powerful
subordinate prince (subject he could scarcely be called)
in the Ottoman Empire. In the wars which convulsed
Europe after the breaking out of the French Revolution,
Alee Pasha took part now with this power and now with
that, as it suited his interest. Though the Porte had
abundant reason to distrust and fear him, its weakness
obliged it to temporize. At length, in 1820, the Sultan
Mahmood II., who had too much pride and energy to
endure any longer the greatness and independent spirit
of Alee, sent against him a powerful army ; and, though
the Pasha of Yanina strove to avail himself of the aid of
the Greeks, who were then beginning to assert their in
dependence, he lost one fortress after another, and was
at last entrapped by the craft of Khurshid Pasha, the
commander of the sultan s forces. Hassan Pasha was
dispatched for Alee s head. No sooner had he announced
his errand than Alee, seizing his pistols, rose with the
fury of a lion, broke with one shot the thigh of his op
ponent, and with two others killed two of Hassan s lieu
tenants, but was shot dead himself the same moment.
This occurred in P ebruary, 1822.

See MALTE-BRUN, "Tableau historique et politique de la Vie
d Ali Pacha;" BEAUCHAMP, "Histoire du fameux Ali Pacha,"
1822 ; DAVENPORT, "Life of Ali Pasha," 1837 ; article on Ali Pacha
in the "North American Review," January, 1824; POUQUEVILLE,
" Memoire sur la Vie et la Puissance d Ali Pacha ; " VAUDONCOURT,
"Memoirs on the Ionian Islands, including the Life of Ali Pacha."

Alefold, a leh-felt , (GEORG LUDWIG,) a German
physician and writer, born at Giessen in 1732, became
professor of medicine and physics at that place in 1758,
and died in 1774.

Alegambe, a leh-gSMb or a leh-gam beh, (PHILIP,)
a learned Flemish Jesuit, born at Brussels in 1592. He
became superior of the house of the Jesuits at Rome,
where he died in 1652. He was the principal author of
an excellent work entitled " Library of the Writers of the
Society of Jesus," ("Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis
Jesu," 1643,) devoted to the biography and bibliography
of Jesuit writers.

Alegre, d , dS ligR , (YvES or IVES, ev,) BARON, a cele
brated French captain, who served in Italy in the time
of Charles VIII. and Louis XII., from 1495 to 1512,
when he fell at the head of his victorious troops in the
battle of Ravenna.

Alegre, d , (YvES,) MARQUIS, a distinguished French
general in the time of Louis XIV. He became marshal
of France in 1724. Died in 1733, aged about eighty.

Alejandro, the Spanish for ALEXANDER, which see.

Alekseief or Alexejev, a-lex-a -yeT, (FEODOR YA-
KOVLEVITCII,) a Russian architectural painter, born in
1755. He excelled in perspective, and in a skilful selec
tion of the point of view from which his pictures were
drawn. Died in 1821.

Alemagna, di, de a-la-man ya, (Giusxo,) [Lat. Jus -
TUS DE ALEMA NIA,] an eminent artist, probably of Ger
man origin, painted at Genoa about 1450.

Al e-man, [Fr. pron. tl moN ,] (Louis,) a distin
guished French ecclesiastic, born in 1390, was made car
dinal in 1426. For his resolute defence of the authority
of the councils in opposition to the despotism of the
Papal see, Eugenins IV. issued a bull depriving him of
all his ecclesiastical dignities ; but these were restored
by Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius. Aleman died
in 1452.

Aleman, a-la-man , (MATED,) a Spanish writer of the
time of Philip II., born at Seville about the middle of
the sixteenth century. He was the author of a celebrated
novel, "Guzman de Alfarachc," (gooth-man da al-fa-
ra cha,) (1599,) which was translated into many lan
guages ; and of a few other works of less importance.
Aleman is said to have been a man of sterling integrity
as well as of great wit and judgment. He was employed
twenty years by the king in the department of finances.

Alemand, rtl mSN , (Louis AUGUSTIN,) a French
writer, born at Grenoble in 1653. He practised law and
medicine at Grenoble, and displayed both judgment and

Explanations, p. 23.)

ALEMANN

ALENCON

erudition in his works, among which is a collection of
critical remarks on the history of words, called " New
Observations, or Civil War of the French respecting
Language," ("Nouvelles Observations, ou Guerre Civile
des Frai^ais sur la Langue," 1688.) Died in 1728.

Alemann, a leh-man , (CoNRAD,) a German writer,
born at Magdeburg in 1309. Died in 1398.

Alemanni, a-la-man nce, sometimes written Ala-
manno, d-la-man no, (ANTONIO,) a Florentine poet,
who nourished about 1500. He is cited for the purity
of his style in the " Vocabolario della Crusca."

Alemanni, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a son of Luigi, the
celebrated poet noticed below, born in 1519, became a
privy counsellor of Francis I., and, in 1558, Bishop of
Mascon, (Macon.) He wrote several sonnets and let
ters. Died in 1581.

Alemarmi, written also Alamamii, a-la-man nec,
( LUIGI,) an eminent Italian poet, born at Florence in
1495. He removed to Paris about 1530, and passed
many years at the court of Francis I., in whom he found
a liberal patron, and by whom he was sent as ambassador
to Charles V. in 1544. He was also patronized by
Henry II. His chief work is an excellent didactic poem
on agriculture, "La Coltivazione," (1546,) which, says
Ginguene, "abounds in elegant imitations of Virgil s
Georgics, and in true and poetical descriptions of the
rural beauties of Italy and France." He was author of
numerous sonnets, epigrams, elegies, satires, etc. Died
at Amboise in 1556.

See MAZZUCHELLI, "Scrittori d ltalia;" TIRABOSCHI, "Storia
della Letteratura Italiana;" LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of
Europe."

Alemarmi, (LuiGi,) a grand-nephew of the poet of
that name, was born at Florence in 1558. He was a good
classical scholar, and author of several short Latin poems.
Died in 1603.

Alemanni, (NiCGOLO,) an antiquary of Greek origin,
born at Ancona in 1583. He became a priest, and was
for some time professor of Greek in Rome. In 1614
he was appointed librarian of the Vatican. He pub
lished, besides other works, the ninth book of the his
tory of Procopius, with a Latin version and notes. Died
in 1626.

Alemans, Sl mSN , a miniature-painter of rare merit,
resided at Brussels in the early part of the eighteenth
century. His works were in great demand, and com
manded very high prices.

Alembek, a lem-bek , (Louis VALERIAN,) a Polish
poet, born at Leopol about 1620. Died about 1690.

Alembert, d , dS lSN baiR , QEAN le Rond leh
roN,) an eminent French geometer and philosopher,
born in Paris on the i6th of November, 1717, was an
illegitimate son of M. Destouches-Canon, a commissary
of artillery, and Madame de Tencin, an authoress.
Having been found exposed in the street, he was placed
by the police in the care of a glazier s wife, named Rous
seau, by whom he was brought up. A few days after his
birth his parents settled upon him an annuity of 1200
livres. It is said that after his remarkable talents be
came known his mother discovered herself to him, but
he replied, " Je ne connais qu une mere, c est la vitriere,"
("I know but one mother the glazier s wife.") He was
educated in the College Mazarin, which he entered in
1 730. After he left college he studied mathematics and
law, and continued to reside with his foster-mother for
many years.

Having written a " Memoir on the Integral Calculus,"
he was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1741. He
published, in 1743, a celebrated "Treatise on Dynamics,"
containing an important principle which will always be
known by the name of D Alembert, and which initiated a
revolution in physico-mathematical sciences. The prin
ciple in question amounts simply to this, that every force
applied to a system must produce its entire effect some
where, if not at the point of application, then somewhere
else. In other words, there is an absolute equality at
all times between the entire amount of force applied and
the sum total of the effects produced: thus, one portion
of the force may be spent in neutralizing an antagonistic
force, for example, in overcoming the momentum which
a body may have already acquired ; another portion,

in overcoming the resistance caused by friction ; a
third, in imparting motion in a new direction. D Alem-
bert s work "On the General Theory of the Winds"
gained a prize of the Academy of Berlin in 1 746. He
declined, in 1752, the invitation of Frederick II. of
Prussia, who offered him the presidency of the Royal
Academy with a liberal pension, but he accepted an un
conditional pension of 1200 francs from that monarch
in 1754. From this time until his death a constant epis
tolary correspondence was maintained between him and
Frederick.

D Alembert was elected to the French Academy in
1754, and received a pension of 1200 francs- from Louis
XV. in 1756. He declined, in 1762, an urgent invitation
trom Catherine II. of Russia to come to her court and
direct the education of her son for a salary of 100,000
francs.

About 1764 he became attached to the accomplished
Mademoiselle de 1 Espinasse, who lived with him twelve
years, but rendered him unhappy by her growing indif
ference to him and her partiality to another. (See ESPI-
NASSE.) D Alembert was for a time joint editor with
Diderot of the famous " Encyclopedic, (commenced
about 1750,) for which he wrote many mathematical
articles, and an introductory discourse that was highly
commended as a model of accurate thinking and elegant
composition. (See DIDEROT.) For many years he was
on terms of great intimacy with Voltaire, to whom he
was as superior in justness of thought as he was in
ferior in wit and brilliancy. D Alembert was a skeptic
in the true sense of the word, (i.e. a "doubter" or "in
quirer,") but not a scoffer or blasphemer, as he has been
commonly represented. We find in his published works
no attacks on the Christian religion; although he did not
conceal his hostility to Roman Catholicism.

In 1772 he was chosen secretary of the French Acad
emy. He wrote " liloges" of the members of that insti
tution who died between 1700 and 1772. Among his
numerous works are " Researches on Various Important
Points of the System of the Universe," (3 vols., 1754-
56;) "Melanges of Literature and Philosophy," (5
vols. ;) and "Elements of Philosophy," (1759.) lie was
a member of all the prominent learned societies of Eu
rope. Died in Paris on the 2gth of October, 1783.

Lacroix, in the " Biographic Universelle," expresses
the opinion that D Alembert should be ranked as high
as any contemporary geometer, when we consider the
difficulties he overcame, the intrinsic value of the methods
which he invented, and the ingenuity (finesse] of his
ideas.

"His literary works," says Lacroix, "constantly di
rected to the perfection of reason and the propagation
of correct ideas, were highly appreciated by all men of
sense, (bans esprits.) All of them are remarkable for a
pure diction, a neat style, and strong or pithy thought."
His character presents many amiable traits, among which
are candour, modesty, and beneficence.

See "l^loge de D Alembert," par CONDORCET; a notice in the
first volume of the edition of his literary and philosophical works
published by J. B. BASTIEN", Paris, 18 vols., 1805 ; and the notice [ire-
fixed to an edition of his works by BOSSANGE, 5 vols., iSzi ; N. RO
SEN VON ROSENSTEIN, " Lefnadsbeskrifiiingofver J. L. d Alembert,"
Stockholm, 8vo, 1787; " B^raphie Universelle."

Aleii, van, vSn a len, (or van O len,) (JoiiN, or JAN,)
a Dutch painter, born in 1631, imitated Melchior Hon-
dekoeter. Died at Amsterdam in 1698.

Alence, d , di loN si , (JOACHIM,) a French astron
omer and physicist, born in Paris. Died in 1707.

Aleiigon, a-len son or I ION .SON , COUNTS, and after
wards DUKES OF, a distinguished line of French nobles
in the middle ages.

Alengon, (CHARLES DE Valois vSl wa ,) COUNT
OF, a brother of Philippe dc Valois, King of France.
He was killed at the battle of Cre cy in 1346.

Alengon, (CHARLES,) DUKE OF, a grandson of Jean,
who died in 1476, was born in 1489. lie married a sister
of Francis I. The loss of the battle of Pavia was at
tributed to him. He is said to have died of shame for
his misconduct in that action. Died in 1525.

Alengon, (FRANgois,) DUKE OF, afterwards Duke of
Anjou, the youngest son of Henry II. of France and

a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mgt; ndt; good; moon;

4LENCON

ALEXANDER

Catherine de Me dicis, born in 1554; died in 1584. He
was awkwardly made, was disfigured by the small-pox,
and, to crown all, was of a cowardly and malignant dis
position. Although he acted a conspicuous part in the
wars and intrigues of his time, he accomplished nothing
useful or great. lie paid court to Queen Elizabeth of
England, and his proposals were very favourably re
ceived by her, but the marriage was broken off on ac
count of his being a Catholic.

See DE THOU, " Historia sui Temporis ;" SIMON DE DE SISMONDI,
" Histoire des Francais ;" SULLY, Memoires ;" MOTLEY, " Rise of
the Dutch Republic," vol. iii. ; FROUDE, "Reign of Elizabeth."

Aleii9on, (JEAN,) first DUKE OF, a French nobleman,
born in 1385. He was killed at the battle of Agincourt
in 1415.

Alengon, (JEAN,) fourth DUKE OF, a French noble
man in the reigns of Charles VII. and Louis XL, noted
for his turbulent ambition. Died in prison about 1474.

Aleni, a-la nee, or Aleiiio, a-la ne-o, (GiULio,) a
learned Italian Jesuit and missionary, born at Brescia.
He visited China in 1610, and preached with great suc
cess ; he caused several churches to be erected, and
made many converts. Died in China in 1649. He wrote
a number of works in the Chinese language.

Aleni, (ToMMASO,) an Italian historical painter, born
at Cremona in 1500 . Died about 1560.

Aleotti, a-la-ot tee, (GIAMBATTISTA,) an Italian en
gineer and architect, born near Ferrara in 1546; died in
1636. His chief work is the theatre of Parma.

Aler, a ler, (PAUL,) a German Jesuit, born in Lux
emburg in 1656, passed many years as a teacher at Co
logne. He wrote several Latin dramas, and published
a popular school-book called " Gradus ad Parnassum,"
of which it is said he was not the author. Died in 1727.

Ales, Aless, or Alesse, a-less , [Lat. ALF.SIUS, a-lee -
shc-ois,] (ALEXANDER,) an eminent Scottish divine, born
in Edinburgh in 1500. His family name was ALANE.
He was driven into exile about 1530 by persecution for
religion, and became a pupil of Melanchthon, with whom
he formed an intimate and lasting friendship. He was
professor of theology at Leipsic from 1543 until 1565.
He wrote commentaries on several books of Scripture,
and some polemical works. Died at Leipsic in 1565.

See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
MACKENZIE. "Lives of Scotch Writers."

Ales, t leV, (PIERRE ALEXANDRA,) Vicomte de
Corbet, a French writer, born in Touraine in 1715.
&gt; His chief work is "On the Origin of Evil," (2 vols., 1758.)
Died about 1770.

Alesio, a-la se-o, (MATTED PIETRO; more properly
MATTED Lecce leVchi,) a painter and engraver, born
at Rome, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. He worked
at Seville. His fresco of Saint Christopher in that city is
Highly praised. He returned to Italy, and died in 1600.

Alesius. See ALES, (ALEXANDER.)

Alessandri, a-les-sau diiee, (ALESSANDRO,) [in Latin,
ALEXAN DER AB ALEXAN DRO,] an Italian writer and
jurist, born at Naples about 1460; died in 1523. He left
a work on philology, called "Dies Geniales," (1522,)
often reprinted. It is on the model of the "Attic
Nights" of Aulus Gellius.

Alessandri, a-lcs-san dRee, (FELICE,) an Italian
composer of operas, born at Rome in 1742. Died about
1810.

Alessandri, (!NNOCENTE,) an Italian engraver of
Venice, born about 1742.

Alessandrim, a-les-san-dRee nee, (GiULio,) an Ital
ian medical writer, bom at Trent in 1506. Died in
1590.

Alessandro, the Italian for ALEXANDER, which see.

Alessandro, a-lfis-san duo, and Ju li-o, (or Giuglio,
jool yo,) two Italian fresco-painters, who are supposed
to have been pupils of Raphael, (or, according to some
writers, of Giovanni da Ucline,) and appear to have been
partners. They worked for Charles V. in Spain, and
decorated the Alhambra. Died about 1530.

Alessi, a-les see, (GALEAZZO, ga-li-at/so,) an eminent
Italian architect, born at Perugia in 1500, was an inti
mate friend of Michael Angelo. Having adorned his
native city with several palazzi, (palaces,) he was called
to Genoa in 1552, to design the Carignano Church. He

was architect of the Grimaldi Palace, and of other granc
palaces of Genoa. Died in 1572.

See Q. DE QUINXY, "Histoire des plus celebres Architectes ;
MILIZIA, " Vite de piii celebri Architelti."

Alessio Piemoiitese, a-leVse-o pe-a-mon-ta sa.
[Lat. ALF.X IS PEDEMONTA NUS,] a physician of the six
teenth century, who dealt in secret remedies. Stung by
remorse at the death of a person who, as he supposed
might have been saved if he had communicated his know
ledge to the attending surgeon, he resolved to make-
known to the world all his remedies, and published a
curious book called " The Secrets of Alexis of Pied
mont."

Al e-vas or Aleu as, [ AAerac,j an ancient Greek
statuary, who worked in bronze. He is mentioned by
Pliny.

Al-ex-am e-rms, [ A/U^a/cztwr,] a native of Teos, was,
according to Aristotle, the first Greek who wrote dia
logues in the Socratic style.

Al-ex-an/der [ Ahegavdpof] I., King of Macedonia,
a son of Amyntas I., began to reign about 500 U.C. He
was obliged to join his forces with the army of Persian
invaders in 480.

Alexander II., King of Macedonia, was a son of
Amyntas II., whom he succeeded about 370 B.C. He
was assassinated in 367.

Alexander [Gr. A/ieav(5pof ; Lat. ALEXAN DER ; Fr.
ALEXANDRE, a lek sdNdR ;* It. ALESSANDRO, a-les-san -
dRo; Sp. ALEJANDRO, a-la-iian dRo ; Persian and Turk
ish, ISKAN DER and SIKAN DER] surnamed THE GREAT,
the first in order of time of the four most celebrated com
manders of whom history makes mention, t and the third
Macedonian king of his name, was born at Pella, 356 B.C.
He was the son of Philip and Olympias, being descended
on his father s side from the ancient royal line of Mace
donia, and on his mother s from the kings of Epirus.
who boasted their descent from Achilles. When Alex
ander was about fourteen years of age, his father sent
for Aristotle, that he might become the tutor of the
young prince. Under this illustrious master, the greatest
intellect of that or, perhaps, of any age, Alexander
rapidly advanced in knowledge of every kind, and devel
oped mental powers of the highest order. Unhappily,
his descent from Achilles, and the flattery of the cour
tiers around him, gave his mind an early bias towards
war, and the ambition to be a great conqueror became
the ruling passion of his soul. The Iliad was his favour
ite book ; and it is said that he had a copy of that poem
which he regularly placed under his pillow at night along
with his sword. He seemed fitted to excel in every de
partment of knowledge, as well as in every manly and
martial exercise. In horsemanship he was unequalled ;
and when the famous steed Bucephalus was brought to
Pella, the Macedonian capital, as none of the grooms or
nobles could manage him, Philip, displeased, ordered the
animal to be sent back whence he came ; but the young
prince begged to be allowed to try his skill. His wish
was at first regarded as the thoughtless expression of
youthful folly ; but, when he earnestly insisted, the king
asked what forfeit he would be willing to pay in case he
failed. "The price of the horse," said Alexander.t He
had observed that Bucephalus was excited by his own
shadow. He therefore turned the horse s head towards
the sun, and, at the same time using every means to
soothe him, he soon succeeded in bringing him under
complete control. The king was so delighted with his
son s success that he is said to have wept for joy, telling
him he must seek for another kingdom, for Macedonia
was too small for him. He had such confidence in Alex
ander s abilities, that when he set out on an expedition
against Byzantium he left the young prince, then only
sixteen years old, as regent of the kingdom during his
absence. According to Plutarch, Philip was delighted to
hear the Macedonians call his son " king," while he him-

* Chaucer has A Icxandre and Alisaunder, the latter being evi
dently derived from the Italian, but not improbably through an old
Frer.ch form.

t Alexander, Hannibal, Gcsar, and Napoleon.

t The price of Bucephalus, says P .iny, in his "Natural History,"
was sixteen talents, probably more than twenty thousand dollars ot
our money.

c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K.,gutlnral; N, nasal; K, trillui; s r.s z; th as in this. (20^ See Explanations, p. 23.)

ALEXANDER

self received the title of "general" only. When but
eighteen years of age, Alexander greatly distinguished
himself in the battle of Chaerone a, and the victory which
Philip won on that memorable field was due in a great
measure to his son s courage and valour. On the death
of his father, (336 B.C.,) Alexander, who was not yet
twenty years old, succeeded to the throne. Several of
the Grecian states which had been subjugated by Philip,
deemed this a favourable opportunity for regaining their
independence. Alexander s energy and promptitude,
however, disconcerted all their measures, and even
those who had been most active submitted to his power
without a struggle. But soon after, while he was en
gaged in subduing the Triballi and other barbarous na
tions in the east of Europe, a report having been circu
lated that he was dead, the Thebans revolted a second
time. But the young king advanced into Boeotia by rapid
strides, and was soon at their gates. The city was taken
by storm, the houses levelled to the ground, and all the
citizens who had escaped massacre in the assault were
sold into slavery the posterity of the poet Pindar,
and the families of those who had opposed the revolt,
alone excepted. The other states of Greece, intimi
dated by this terrible example, were fain to accept Alex
ander as their ruler. In a general assembly held not
long after, at Corinth, he was chosen generalissimo of
all the Grecian forces destined for the expedition against
Persia. In the spring of 334 B.C. he passed over into
Asia Minor with an army of not more than 35,000 men,
including the cavalry, which scarcely amounted to 5000.
He first engaged the Persians at the river Grani cus,
where they endeavoured to prevent his passage. Al
though the Macedonians fought at a great disadvantage,
being attacked by the Persians while they were still in
the river, they soon put their enemies to flight. He af
terwards advanced to Gordium, where was the famous
Gordian knot. He had been told that the fates had de
creed the empire of the world to him who should untie
the knot. He tried therefore for some time ; but, finding
all his efforts to be vain, he at last drew his sword and
cut the knot, declaring that this was the only way to
untie it. In 333 B.C., having received reinforcements
from Macedonia, he advanced to meet Darius, who had
assembled an army of about 600,000 men. The opposing
forces met at Issus. The Persians were defeated with
terrible slaughter. Darius himself escaped from the
battle, but his mother, his wife, and two daughters were
taken by the conqueror, who treated them with the
greatest kindness and consideration. The booty which
fell into the hands of the Macedonians after their victory
at Issus was immense. Before proceeding farther, Alex
ander deemed it wisest to reduce the maritime states.
Most of the other towns and cities submitted at once to
his power ; but Tyre offered a most determined resist
ance. After a siege of seven months, during which the
Tyrians defended the place with equal skill and obsti
nacy, the city was taken, 332 B.C. The glory of this
achievement, however, was stained by the cruelty of the
conqueror towards the inhabitants, of whom several
thousands were mercilessly slaughtered, and the remain
der, amounting to thirty thousand, sold into slavery.
As he proceeded southward, all the towns opened their
gates except Gaza, which experienced a fate similar to
that of Tyre. Alexander then marched into Egypt,
where he was received by the people, who were weary
of the Persian domination, as a liberator. Here he
founded a city called, after his own name, Alexandria.
He afterwards visited the temple of Jupiter Ammon on
an oasis in the desert of Libya, in the hope, as some
say, that the god would acknowledge him as his son.
This acknowledgment having been made through the
priest of the temple, Alexander returned to Egypt, and,
not long after, marched against Darius, who had col
lected another army of more than a million men, with
40,000 cavalry. The Macedonians had only about 40,000
foot-soldiers and 7000 horsemen. The armies met ;\t
Gaugamela, near Arbela, 331 B.C. The Persians were
routed with immense slaughter. Soon after Babylon and
Susa opened their gates to the conqueror. Persepolis,
the capital of the empire, defended by Ariobarzanes,
was taken after a slight resistance. Alexander was now

the undisputed master of Persia; but his successes
appear to have turned his brain. Having persuaded
himself that he was a god, he thought that he owed no
obedience to laws which were made for mortals only.
While at Persepolis, he is said, in a drunken revel, at the
instigation of the courtesan Thais, to have set fire, with
his own hand, to the magnificent residence of the Per
sian kings, then one of the wonders of the world. In
330 B.C., having learned that Darius was collecting
another army in Media, Alexander set out in pursuit of
him. The Persian king fled towards Bactria ; but be
fore he reached its confines he was murdered by Bessus,
the satrap of that country, who aspired to the throne of
Persia. The conqueror came up just as Darius was
breathing his last. The dying king, covered with wounds,
lay extended on a chariot. At this sad spectacle Alex
ander could not restrain his tears. He caused the body
of Darius to be conveyed to Persepolis and interred in
the tombs of the Persian kings. He then marched in
pursuit of Bessus, who, having at last fallen into his
hands, was put to death, as Plutarch informs us, in the
following manner. He was attached by his limbs to two
trees, which had been bent towards each other for this
purpose, and, on their being allowed to recoil, his body
was torn asunder. Alexander had carried his victorious
arms to the northward beyond the Jaxartes. He after
wards subdued Sogdiana. Oxyartes, a Bactrian prince,
had, for the sake of security, placed his wife and daugh
ters in a fortress built upon a lofty rock. Alexander
took it, and was so deeply smitten with the beauty of
Roxana, one of the daughters, that he mar ied her.
After his conquest of Persia there were formed against
his life two conspiracies, in the first of which Philotas,
the son of Parmenio, was implicated, and which led to
the death both of son and father, (see PARMENIO;) the
second, of which Hennolaus was the chief instigator, in
volved Callisthenes, the pupil, and, according to some,
the nephew, according to others the cousin, of Aristotle,
and several of the royal pages. All the conspirators
were put to death, except Callisthenes, who was muti
lated and afterwards killed ; though some say he de
stroyed himself by poison.

1:13276. C. Alexander invaded India, a country of which
until that time even the name was scarcely known to the
Greeks. Having crossed the Indus, he formed an alli
ance with Taxiles, one of the kings of that region, who
is said to have brought him, in addition to a large body
of troops, one hundred and thirty elephants. He ap
pears to have met with little opposition until he arrived
at the banks of the Hydaspes, (Jhylum.) Here his ad
vance was resisted by a king named Porus, at the head
of a great army, with a large number of elephants. After
a hard-fought and bloody battle, Alexander was victo
rious. He took Porus prisoner, but afterwards he re
stored him to his kingdom and treated him with the
highest consideration. His favourite horse Bucephalus
had been severely wounded in the battle, so that he died
soon after. On the spot where he was buried Alexander
founded a town, which he called, in honour of him, Buce-
phala. He afterwards advanced, subduing many cities
in his course, as far as the Hyphasis, (Gharra,) w ner. ms
soldiers refused to go any farther. His commands and
entreaties were equally unavailing, and he was under the
necessity of returning. Having previously given orders
that a fleet should be built on the Hydaspes, they imme
diately embarked upon that river, continuing their course
down the Indus to the sea. Committing his fleet to
Nearchus, he proceeded by land to Susa. In his march
he encountered incredible hardships, and a large number
of his men perished from hunger and thirst. At Susa,
where he rested for some time, he married, as his second
wife, the daughter of Darius ; and to all those Mace
donians (amounting, it is said, to 9000 or 10,000) who
married Persian women he gave presents. His object
was to unite the two nations as intimately as possible.
Soon after, his friend Hephasstion died, for whose loss
he was for a long time inconsolable. As he was forming
vast projects for the improvement of his empire, and for
the subjugation of the surrounding nations, he died at
Babylon, 323 B.C., in his thirty-third year.

In the extent of his conquests, and in the splendour

a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; \ 5t good; moon;

ALEXANDER

of his exploits, Alexander may be said to have surpassed
all other military heroes. He overran and subdued the
greater part of the world known to the ancients, almost
as quickly as the same could have been explored by an
active and enterprising traveller. Even now, after the
lapse of twenty-two hundred years, his name is still
"familiar as household words" in most of the countries
that he conquered. It may not be irrelevant to state
in order to show what a deep impression the arms and
policy of Alexander had made upon the mind of the
Persian nation that Firdousee, (Firdausi,) in his great
historic poem, the " Shah Nameh," written about the
year 1000 A.ix, speaks of Alexander (Iskander) as the
greatest of heroes ; but, following probably the tradi
tions of his country, the poet represents him as the son
of a Persian king who had married a Macedonian prin
cess, and, while she was on a visit to her father in Mace-
don, Alexander was born. This is equivalent to an
acknowledgment, on the part of the Persians, that they
considered his glory too great not to be appropriated at
least in part by themselves. Although it must be ad
mitted that Alexander owed more to fortune than any
other of the great conquerors mentioned in history, it
can scarcely be questioned that his military talents were
of the very highest order. Many of his views of public
policy were liberal and enlightened ; and his ideas re
specting the greatness and dignity that became a king
were very different from those of an ordinary or vulgar
sovereign. Undoubtedly, much of what was greatest and
noblest in his character was due to the instructions of
his illustrious teacher Aristotle ; but it is certainly no
small praise that the royal pupil was, at least in the
early part of his career, before his brain had been turned
by his unparalleled successes, every way worthy of such
a teacher. He appears to have regarded him with an
affectionate reverence such as he felt for no other human
being, not even his father. And if these sentiments were
afterwards somewhat changed by the folly or crime of
Aristotle s relative Callisthenes, they were never wholly
extinguished. There was in Alexander s nature a gene
rosity and magnanimity rare even among men most
distinguished for greatness of soul. His "treatment of
the family of Darius, and his generous conduct towards
Poms, have already been spoken of. We may cite
another example of his magnanimity, related by Plutarch
and some other writers. A letter from Parmenio, one
of his ablest and most trusted officers, informed Alex
ander, when he was once lying very ill, that his physi
cian Philip had been bribed by Darius, with presents of
immense value and the promise of his daughter in mar
riage, to take him off by poison. As Philip entered the
chamber with a cup of medicine for his royal patient,
Alexander drew the letter from under his pillow and
gave it to him to read, while he himself, without the
slightest hesitation, drank off the medicine prepared for
him. The result fully justified the trust with which
Philip s character had inspired him, and which his coun
tenance then confirmed. Although the strength of his
intellect and of his will was most extraordinary, unhap
pily that of his passions was still greater. Accordingly,
we behold him, after the conquest of Persia, so elated
as eagerly to accept the adoration which his flatterers
offered to him as to a god, and yet surrendering him
self up at one time to the most insane paroxysms of
anger, at another to the most passionate and uncontrol
lable grief. In a fit of rage he slew his friend and foster-
brother Clitus, who had once saved his life, after which
he became a prey to sorrow and remorse no less violent
than his anger had been, so that had he not been re
strained by his friends he would probably have killed
himself. Pope, in his " Temple of Fame," appropriately

calls him

"The youth who all things but himself subdued.

See PLUTARCH S "Lives;" AKRIAN S "History of Alexander s
Expedition;" "Life of Alexander," by QUINTUS CURTIUS ; " Bib-
hotheca" of DIOIJORUS SICULUS," books xvii.-\x. ; SAINTE-CROIX,

Examen critique dcs anciens Historiens d Alexandre !e Grand,"
1775; DROYSEN, " Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen," 1833: WIL
LIAMS,^" Life arid Actions of Alexander the Great," 1829: THIRL-
WAI.L, " History of Greece;" VALERIUS, "Historia AlexandriMagni,"
Vir?i LKHMANN, "Historia Mapni Alexandri." 1667; KOSSIN

L Eroismo ponderate nella Vita di Alessandro il Grande," 2 vols.
1716 ; PONSECA-REBELO, " Historia abreviada de Alexandra Magno,"

1753; LINGUET, "Histoire du Siecle d Alexandre le Grand," 1762
DE liuKY, "Vie d Alexandre le Grand," 1760; G. SCHLECEL, " Ein-
leitung zu einer Alexandropadie oder iiber die Jugemljahre Alexander-
des Grossen," 1775; GUSTAV PFIZER, "Gesch;chte Alexanders de-.

etc.," 1764.

Alexander IV., a son of Alexander the Great ana
Roxana, was born in 323 i;.c., after his father s death. He
was saluted as king by the army at Babylon, and was
under the guardianship of successive regents, Perdiccas.
Antipater, and Polysperchon. About 316 he fell into
the power of Cassander, who put him and Roxana to
death in 310 B.C.

Alexander V. of Macedonia, was the third son of
Cassander. He disputed with his brother Antipater for
the royal power, and was put to death by Demetrius
Poliorcetes in 294 n.c.

Alexander I., King of Epirus, was a son of Neop-
tolemus, and brother of Olympias, who was the mother
of Alexander the Great. He was killed in a war against
the Lucanians about 330 li.c.

Alexander II. of Epirus, succeeded his father Pyr-
rhus in 272 i;.c. He waged war against Demetrius of
Macedon. Died about 242 B.C.

Alexander, tyrant of Phcrae in Thessaly, usurped
the throne in 369 li.c., and was notorious for cruelty.
He was compelled byEpaminondas to give up Pelopidas,
whom he had taken prisoner in 367. In 364 he was
defeated by the Thebans under Pelopidas, who fell in
the action. He was killed by conspirators in 359 B.C.

Alexander I. of Egypt, was a son of Ptolemy Ever-
getes II. He reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra
eighteen years, from 107 to 89 B.C. He was dethroned
and killed in battle soon after the latter date. His son
Alexander reigned a few weeks in 81 B.C., and was
killed by his own subjects in the same year.

Alexander I., surnamed BA LAS, King of Syria, pre
tended to be the son of Antiochus Epiphanes. He began
to reign in 150 li.c., after he had defeated Demetrius
Soter in battle, and after the Roman Senate had issued
a decree in his favour. The kingdom was invaded in 148
by an army raised by Demetrius IL, and by another under
Ptolemy of Egypt, who gained a decisive victory over
Alexander in 147. He fled into Arabia, where he was
killed in 146 B.C. His surname of Balas is supposed to
signify "Lord."

See JOSEPHUS, "History of the Jews."

Alexander II., otherwise called Alexander Za-
bi nas, (or Zebina, i.e. "a purchased slave,") was a
pretender, who, being favoured or instigated by Ptolemy
Physcon of Egypt, obtained the throne of Syria in 128
B.C., after he had defeated Demetrius II. Refusing to
pay tribute, he provoked the hostility of Ptolemy, by
whom he was defeated and put to death in 122 B.C.

Alexander, a grandson of Alexander Jannaeus, and
a son of Aristobu lus II. He raised an army in 57 B.C.
and entered Judca, then occupied by the Romans. He
made himself master of that country in 56, but was de
feated by Gabinius about the end of that year. He
was put to death by Q. M. Scipio in 49 B.C.

Alexander OF JEc,sE, (ee je,) a Peripatetic philoso
pher, instructor of the Roman emperor Nero.

Alexander OK APHKODISIAS. See ALEXANDER

EXEGETES.

Alexander surnamed ^ETOLUS, (e-to lus,) from
his birthplace, TEtolia, a Greek poet, who lived in the
third century B.C. He was regarded as one of the Pleias
of tragic poets.

Alexander surnamed EXEGF/TF.S, (i.e. the "Ex
pounder,") a celebrated philosopher and cpmmentator
on Aristotle, flourished in the early part of the third
century. He was a native of Aphrodisias, in Caria,
Asia Minor.

Alexander JANNVEUS, (jan-nee us,) a son of John
Hyrcanus, succeeded his brother Aristobu lus as King
of Judca in 105 B.C. The enmity of the Pharisees against
him caused a rebellion, which raged several years, and
was suppressed with great cruelty in 86 B.C. Died in

78 B.C.

See article by GESENIUS in ERSCH und GRUBER S " Allgemeine En-
yklopaedie."

c as /; 5 as r; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)

ALEXANDER

Alexan der MYN DIUS, a Greek writer and natural
ist, lived probably in the second century B.C.

Alexan der NUME NIUS, a Greek rhetorician of the
second century, wrote a book on the " Figures of Rhet
oric," which is extant.

Alexan der PELOP LATON, a Greek orator, who
was secretary to Antoninus Pius about 150 A.D.

Alexander PHILALE THES, [4&gt;^a/J/^f,] a Greek
physician, who was the head of a celebrated medical
school in Phrygia. He is mentioned by Strabo as his
contemporary, and by Galen. His works are not extant.

Alexan der TRALLIA NUS, [Gr. oTpa?Jtawc; Fr. AL-
EXANDRE DETRALLES, t lgk sSNclR 7 deh tRfl ,] a Greek
medical writer of great merit, was born at Ttalles, in
Lydia, and lived in the sixth century. He settled in
Rome, and attained great distinction in his profession.
It is supposed that he was a Christian. His great work
is entitled "Twelve Books on Medicine," (BiiSAia larpiKu
Jyo/caMwca.) He is considered one of the best Greek
physicians after Hippocrates. His style is clear and
elegant. His works have often been printed.

See E. MILWARD, "Trallianus Revivescens," 1734; FREIND,
" History of Physic."

Alexander, a bishop of Jerusalem, who was perse
cuted under the emperor Septimius Severus. He was
translated from the see of Cappaclocia to that of Jeru
salem, where he founded a library. Died in prison about
250 A.D.

Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria from 312 to 325
A.D., is noted as the first orthodox theologian who took
a prominent part in the Arian controversy. He wrote
many epistles against Arianism. He attended the Coun
cil of Nice in 325, and died in 326 A.D. (See ATHA-

NASIUS.)

Alexander, Emperor of Constantinople, born about
870 A.D., was a son of Basilius. He succeeded his
brother Leo the Philosopher in 911, and disgraced him
self by his debaucheries. Died in 912.

Alexander I., POPE, became Bishop of Rome in 108
A.D. ; died in 117. He is said to have been the first
to introduce the use of holy water in the service of the
church.

Alexander II., named originally Anselmo Bada-
gio, (ba-di jo,) was elected pope in 1061; died in 1073,
and was succeeded by Gregory VII.

Alexander III. (previously Cardinal ROLANDO
Ranuccio Bandinelli ra-noo cho b3n-cle-nel lee)
was raised to the papal chair in 1159 ; died in nSi, and
was succeeded by Lucius III. He was distinguished
for his learning and great abilities.

See " Vita Alexandri III.," by the CARDINAL OF ARAGON ; Mu-
RATOKI, "Annali d ltalia ;" G. F. LOREDANO, "Vita di Alessandro
III.," 1672.

Alexander IV. (RiNAi.no di Anagni de d-nan -
yee) became pope in 1254; died iri 1261, and was suc
ceeded by Urban IV.

Alexander V. (PIETRO Filargo fe-laR go) became
pope in 1409 ; died in 1410. His successor was John
XXIII.

Alexander VI. (RODRIGO Lenzuoli Borgia Ign-
zoo-o lee boR ja) was born at Valencia, Spain, about
1430. He first studied law, and distinguished himself as
an advocate, but afterwards embraced the military pro
fession. When he was only twenty-five, his uncle, Ca-
lixtus III., was raised to the papal see. This circum
stance directed his ambition towards the church. He
was made cardinal through the influence of his uncle in
1456, and at length, in 1492, was elected pope as suc
cessor to Innocent VIII. He was distinguished, both
while he was a cardinal and after he became pontiff, for
his profligacy, inhumanity, and unscrupulous ambition.
Alexander s illegitimate son, the infamous Cesare Bor
gia, was made cardinal soon after his father s accession
to the papal throne. (See BORGIA.) He died in August,
1503, and was succeeded by Pius III. It has been as
serted by several historians that Alexander VI. died from
the effects of a poison which he and his son Borgia had
designed for certain of their guests at a banquet, but
which, by mistake, was taken by the pope himself. The
"Nouvelle Biographic Generate," in an elaborate article,

endorses this accusation. It has, however, been dis
credited by several historical critics, on the ground that
the evidence is insufficient. But, whatever judgment
we may form on this question, it can scarcely be denied
that the reign of Alexander VI. constitutes the blackest
and most infamous page in the history of modern times.

See GORDON, " Lives ofAlexander VI. and Cassar Borgia," 1729 ;
Mi

Borgia."

Alexander VII. (FAIIIO Chigi kee jee) was born
at Sienna in 1599, and chosen pope in 1655, on the death
of Innocent X. He is noted for his zealous and successful
efforts to improve and embellish the city of Rome. He
died in May, 1667, and was succeeded by Clement IX.

See BAGATTA, "Vita di Alessandro VI I.;" BOTTA, " Storia d lta
lia;" N. N. SFORZA PALLAVICINO, "Delia Vita di Alessandro VII.,"
vols., 1840.

Alexander VIII. (named originally PIETRO Otto-
boiri ot-to-bo nee) was born at Venice in 1610. He
succeeded Innocent XI. in 1689. He aided the Vene
tians in war against the Turks. Died in 1691. His suc
cessor was Innocent XII.

See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, "Vies cles souverains Pontifes."

Alexander I., King of Scotland, was a younger son
of Malcolm Canmore. He succeeded his brother Edgar
in 1107, and married a natural daughter of Henry I. of
England. He died in 1124, and left the throne to his
brother, David I.

See BURTON, " History of Scotland," vol. i. chap. xi. and vol. ii.
chap. xii.

Alexander II. of Scotland, born in 1198, succeeded
his father William the Lion in 1214. He fought against
King John of England, as an ally of the revolted barons,
and after the end of the war married a sister of Henry
III. He is represented as a wise and able ruler. Died
in 1249, and was succeeded by his son.

See BURTON, "History of Scotland," vol. ii. chap. xiv.

Alexander III. of Scotland, a son of the preceding,
was born in 1241, and began to reign in 1249. His nup
tials were celebrated with Margaret, the daughter of
Henry III. of England, in 1251. His long reign was
prosperous and peaceful, with the exception of an un
successful invasion of Scotland by Haco, King of Nor
way, with a large army, in 1263. Alexander fell with his
horse over a precipice, and was killed by the fall, in 1286.
He left no surviving children, and was succeeded by his
infant grand-daughter Margaret.

See BURTON, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chap. xv. ; TYTLER,
" History of Scotland;" WYNTOWN, " Chronicle of Scotland."

Alexander JAGELLON ya-gel lon, King of Poland
and Grand Duke of Lithuania, born in 1461, was a son
of Casimir IV. of Poland. He became king at the death
of his brother John Albert in 1501. lie waged war
with little success against the Grand Duke Ivan of Rus
sia. In his reign the laws of Poland were reduced to a
code by John Laski. Died in 1506.

Alexander-NKVSKY nev ske, (i.e. " of the Neva,")
sometimes written -NEVSKOI and -NEWSKOJ, a brave
Russian prince, born in 1219, was a son of Yaroslav
(Jaroslaw) II. He is said to have gained, in 1240, a
great victory over the Swedes on the river Neva, whence
his surname. He succeeded his father as grand duke
in 1245. Died in 1263. He is venerated as a saint by
the Russians.

Alexander I., (or, more fully, Alexander-Pavlo-
vitch pav lo-vitch , i.e. "Alexander the son of Paul,")
Emperor of Russia, the son of Paul and Maria Feodo-
rovna, daughter of Prince Eugene of Wiirtemberg, was
born at Saint Petersburg in 1777. The care of his
education was taken from his father by Catherine II.,
his grandmother, who herself wrote tales for the amuse
ment and instruction of the young prince. Catherine
died in 1796, having named, it is said, Alexander as
her successor in a will which was destroyed by Paul.
In 1 80 1 Paul was assassinated ; but there is no sufficient
ground for believing that Alexander in any way, directly
or indirectly, sanctioned this crime, al-npugh he appear?

a, e,T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short : a, e, i, o, obscTtre; far, fall, fat; met, n6t; good; moon;

ALEXANDER

to have consented to the dethronement of his father.
The chief defect of his character in the early part of his
life was the yielding too passively to the advice of the
corrupt courtiers about him, and the want of reliance
on his own judgment and on the dictates of his own
noble nature. This may perhaps account for the in
consistencies which appear in his conduct in different
parts of his life. He does not seem to have exhibited
any striking indications of that greatness of mind
which was afterwards so conspicuous, till about the
time of the French invasion in 1812. Our limits neces
sarily compel us to pass over the military movements
and those other acts of his reign which are found in
every history of that eventful period. Suffice it to say
that as his firmness and wisdom had led to the over
throw of Napoleon in 1813, so, after that event, his
magnanimity preserved the city of Paris from the fury
of the Russian soldiers, liberated one hundred and fifty
thousand French prisoners of war confined in Russia,
and sought to obtain for his fallen foe the most liberal
terms compatible with what he deemed the safety of
Europe. It was, in fact, through his influence that Bo
naparte was allowed an independent sovereignty in Elba
and the command of a portion of his former guard. On
Alexander s return to Russia he granted an absolute
pardon to all his subjects who had taken part against
him in the late war. When it was proposed to erect a
monument to commemorate his exploits, he peremptorily
declined the honour, adding, " May a monument be
erected to me in your hearts, as it is to you in mine."
He gave unremitting attention to the internal improve
ment of his empire. Reform was introduced into every
department, military and civil. In the army, the soldier
was subjected to the restraints not merely of discipline,
but also of humanity. Persecution on account of reli
gion was first abolished in Russia under his reign. He
entered Paris with the army of the Allies in July, 1815, and
in September of that year he concluded with the Em
peror of Austria and the King of Prussia a treaty called
the Holy Alliance, which, although ostensibly formed to
promote religion, peace, and justice, proved to be a bul
wark against the progress of liberal principles. He died
without issue, at Taganrog, on the 1st of December, 1825,
and was succeeded by his brother Nicholas.

In reviewing the life and character of Alexander I.
of Russia, we are obliged to confess that although his
nature was on the whole kind and generous, and most
of the acts of his reign were prompted by the spirit of
justice and humanity, the cause of freedom owes little or
nothing to his influence. It may be that he, like so
many others, received such an impression from the ex
cesses of the French Revolution that he came to believe
that the people could not safely be trusted with any por
tion of liberty. In the latter part of his life especially,
his mind sharing, perhaps, in his bodily infirmities, he re
garded with morbid apprehension every public manifes
tation which looked towards the slightest enlargement
of the privileges and powers of the people, and Ins at
tention was chiefly devoted to suppressing liberal move
ments not only in Poland, but also in Italy, Spain, Por
tugal, and Germany.

See HENRY EVANS LLOYD, "Alexander I., Emperor of Russia,"
1826; SIR WALTER SCOTT, "Life of Napoleon Bonaparte;" ALI
SON, "History of Europe;" HEINRICH STORCH, "Russland unter
Alexander I.," 8 vols., 1803-06; J. D. F. RUMPF, " Alexander I.
Kaiser von Russland," 1814; COUSIN D AVALLON, "Vie privee,
politique et militaire d Alexandre I," 1826; CARL F. LEIDENFROST,
"Abriss einer Lebens Alexanders I.," 1826; ADRIEN EGRON, "Vie
d Alexandre I de Russie," 1826 ; ALPHONSF. RADUE, " Histoire d Al
exandre I," etc., 1826; CARL MORGENSTERN, "Znm Gedaechtnisse
Alexanders I.," 1827; E. W. C. VOIGT, "Alexander I.," 1830.

Alexander II., surnamed NicoLAEViTCH,ne-ko-la e-
vitch, (i.e. "son of Nicholas,") Emperor of Russia, the
eldest son of Nicholas I., was born on the 2gth of April,
1818. His mother, Alexandra Feodorovna, was a sister
of Frederick William IV. of Prussia. He married, in
1841, a daughter of Louis II., Grand Duke of Hesse-
Darmstadt, who, on joining the Greek Church, adopted
the name of Marie Alexandrovna. On the death of
Nicholas, March 2, 1855, he ascended the throne, in the
midst of a war between Russia on one side, and France,
England, Turkey, and Sardinia on the other. He re-
ained in office the ministers of his father, and pro

claimed his intention to pursue the policy of his prede
cessor. The war was prosecuted with vigour even aftei
the capture of Sebastopol, September, 1855. Conferences
for the negotiation of peace, opened in Paris in March,
1856, resulted in a treaty by which neither party gained
any important advantages.

Since the restoration of peace he has ordered several
reforms in the administration, and has acquired the
reputation of being more moderate and liberal than his
father. Among the important measures of his reign is
the gradual emancipation of more than twenty millions
of serfs, which was decreed in March, 1861.

A letter which he addressed to the government of the
United States in 1861, on the subject of the great rebel
lion, was received as an indication of a most friendly
feeling on the part of Russia towards this country, which
was doubly welcome on account of the doubtful or hostile
attitude assumed by some of the other leading European
powers.

Alexan der ALEN SIS, (i.e. "of Hales,") a renowned
English theologian, styled the "Irrefragable Doctor."
His chief work is a " System of Theology," (" Summa
Theologian, ") written by order of Pope Innocent IV.
Died in 1245.

Alexander [Fr. ALEXANDRE, f lek soxdR ] OF BER -
NAY , afterwards ALEXANDER OF PARIS, a French poet
of the twelfth century, born at the village of Bernay, in
Normandy. He was the author (or one of the authors)
of a poem on the exploits of Alexander the Great, in
verses of twelve syllables, a measure which has ever
since been termed "Alexandrine."

Alexander OF CANTERBURY, an English abbot and
writer, who was noted for his assertion of the rights or
interests of King John against the pope. Died about
1 220.

Alexan der ESSEBIEN SIS, (i.e. "of Ashby,") an
English monk, who wrote historical and theological
works in the first part of the thirteenth century.

Alexaii der INSULA NUS, a monk and chronicler of
Westphalia, flourished about 1210.

Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, born at Blois, was
surnamed THE MAGNIFICENT. He rebuilt Lincoln Ca
thedral. Died in 1 147.

Alexan der OF VILLE DIEU, (vel de-ul/,) a gramma
rian of the thirteenth century. He taught in Paris, and
composed a book of grammar in verse, which was long
in general use as a school-book.

Alexan der, (ARCHIBALD,) D.D., an eminent Ameri
can divine, born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in
1772. His grandfather, of Scottish descent, came from
Ireland to Pennsylvania in 1736, and, after a residence
of about two years, removed to Virginia. His father
was a farmer. Archibald received his classical education
at the academy of the Rev. William Graham, with whom
he also studied theology. He was licensed to preach in
1791, and for several years devoted himself to itineraiit
labours, in which he acquired great fluency as a speaker.
In 1796 he succeeded the Rev. Dr. John Blair Smith as
president of Hampden-Sidney College, Virginia. He
became pastor of the Pine Street Presbyterian Church of
Philadelphia in 1807. On the organization of the Theo
logical Seminary at Princeton in 1812, Dr. Alexander was
unanimously chosen the first professor, with the sole
charge of the several branches of a theological educa
tion. As the number of students increased, other pro
fessors were called to his assistance, which enabled him
to direct his attention more particularly to the depart
ment of pastoral and polemic theology, in promoting
which and the general interests of the institution he con
tinued to labour with great zeal and success till his death
in 1851. Dr. Alexander s powers, both for pulpit oratory
and polemic disquisition, were extraordinary ; and in all
the relations of life he possessed rare excellencies. Few
persons who have commenced authorship at so late a
period in life have written so much. With the exception
of some occasional sermons and contributions to peri
odicals, he had published nothing till the appearance of
his "Outlines of the Evidences of Christianity," in his
fifty-second year, a work which has been translated
into various foreign languages and is a text -book of high

e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s ns z; th as in this. (SJf^See Explanations, p. 23

ALEXANDER

authority in several colleges. This was followed by his
"Treatise on the Canon of the Scriptures ;" "Christian
Experience ;" " History of African Colonization ;" "His
tory of the Israelites ;" "Bible Dictionary ;" "Counsels
fom the Aged to the Young ;" besides many other works
which our limits will not permit us to mention. His
"Outlines of Moral Science," published in i852,-(after
his decease,) says the " Westminster Review," " is a calm,
clear stream of abstract reasoning flowing from a thought
ful, well-instructed mind, without any parade of logic,
buf. with an intuitive simplicity and directness which
give an almost axiomatic force." Dr. Alexander mar
ried in 1802 Janetta Waddell, daughter of the celebrated
blind preacher mentioned by Wirt in his "British Spy."
He left five sons and one daughter. Of the former, three
were ministers.

See "Life of Dr. Archibald Alexander," by his son, JAMES W.
ALEXANDER, New York, 1852; STRAGUE S "Annals of the American
Pulpit," vol. iii.

Alexander, (CALEB,) D.D., an American clergyman,
was born at Northfield, Massachusetts, and graduated
at Yale College in 1777. He afterwards settled at Onon-
daga Hollow, New York, where he died in 1828. He
was the author of a Latin Grammar, (1794,) an English
Grammar, and an Essay on the Deity of Jesus Christ,
(1796.)

Alexander, (Sir JAMES EDWARD,) a British officer
and writer, born in Scotland in 1803. He was employed
about 1835 in an exploration of Africa, and commanded
a regiment at Sebastopol in 1855. Among his works
are "An Expedition into Southern Africa," "Travels
through Russia and the Crimea," and a "Life of the
Duke of Wellington."

Alexander, (JAMES WADDELL,) D.D., an American
divine, eldest son of Dr. Archibald Alexander, was born
in Louisa county, Virginia, in 1804. He graduated at
Princeton in 1820, and, after studying theology, was for
some time tutor in that institution. He commenced his
labours as a minister in Charlotte county, Virginia, about
1826; subsequently removed to Trenton, New Jersey;
and, from 1830 to 1833, edited "The Presbyterian," pub
lished in Philadelphia. He filled the chair of rhetoric
and belles-lettres in the College of New Jersey (Prince
ton) until 1844, when he became pastor of the Duane
Street Presbyterian Church, New York. From 1849 to
1851 he was professor of ecclesiastical history and church
government in the Princeton Theological Seminary, and,
for the remainder of his life, minister of the Presbyterian
church in Fifth Avenue, New York. Dr. Alexander was
a ripe scholar and vigorous writer. Among his works
may be mentioned above thirty juvenile books written
for the American Sunday-School Union; "Life of Dr.
Archibald Alexander," 8vo, pp. 700 ; " American Me
chanic s and Working-Man s Companion," 2 vols. ;
" Gift to the Afflicted ;" besides numerous sermons,
essays, etc. For many years he was one of the principal
contributors to the "Princeton Review." Died at Vir
ginia Springs, July, 1859.

See " Forty Years Familiar Letters of James VV. Alexander," by
JOHN HALL, D.D.

Alexander, (JOSEPH ADDISON,) D.D., a distinguished
theologian and Oriental scholar, third son of Dr. Ar
chibald Alexander, was born in Philadelphia in 1809.
At the age of twelve he commenced the study of Arabic,
and before entering college had made considerable pro
gress in the Persian and Hebrew. After graduating at
Princeton in 1826, he continued his studies under pri
vate tutors, and from 1830 to 1833 was adjunct pro
fessor of ancient languages and literature in the Col
lege of New Jersey. In 1838 he became professor of
biblical criticism and ecclesiastical history in the
Princeton Theological Seminary, and in 1852 was trans
ferred to the chair of biblical and ecclesiastical history.
This position he occupied till his death, (1859.) In the
extent and accuracy of his learning Dr. Alexander had
few superiors in America ; and several of his works
have had a great success. His " Commentary on the
Prophecies of Isaiah," (8vo, pp. 968,) republished In
Scotland, Dr. Eadie, of Glasgow, pronounces " among
the best commentaries on Isaiah of any age or lan
guage." His " Psalms Translated and Explained," in

three voh mes, which appeared in 1850, reached a sale
of ten thousand copies in four years. In 1851 he gave
to the public his " Essays on the Primitive Church Of
fices." He was one of the principal contributors to the
" Princeton Review." At the time of his decease he was
engaged, with Dr. Hodge, in the preparation of a com
mentary on the New Testament.

See "Life of J. A. Alexander," by the REV. HENRY C. ALFCX-
ANPKR, New York, 1870.

Alexander, (NATHANIEL,) born in 1756, was elected
Governor of North Carolina in 1806 ; died in 1808.

Alexander, (Noi ; .L.) See ALFXANDRE.

Alexander, (STEPHEN,) LL.D., an American as
tronomer, was born at Schenectady, New York, in 1806.
He graduated at Union College in 1824, entered Prince
ton Theological Seminary in 1832, and in 1834 was
appointed adjunct professor of mathematics in the Col
lege of New Jersey. In 1840 the professorship of as
tronomy was created and assigned to him, and on the
death of Dr. Albert D. Dod, in 1845, ne succeeded him
as professor of mathematics. Since 1854 he has filled
the chairs of mechanics and astronomy. He has pub
lished numerous papers on astronomy, mathematics,
etc., some of which have attracted the attention of emi
nent astronomers both at home and abroad. Among
these may be mentioned one on the " Physical Phenom
ena attendant upon Solar Eclipses ;" " Fundamental
Principles of Mathematics ;" " On the Origin of the
Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clus
ters of Stars," etc. In 1860 he conducted an astronom
ical expedition sent out to the coast of Labrador by the
United States government for the purpose of making
observations on the solar eclipse of July 18 of that year.

Alexander, (THOMAS,) Earl of Selkirk, a British
writer on politics, etc., planted a colony in Canada.
Died in 1820.

Alexander, (WILLIAM,) Earl of Stirling, a Scot
tish poet and courtier, born, it is supposed, about
1580. He produced in 1604 tragedies entitled "Julius
Caesar " and " Croesus ;" and " Parcenesis to the Prince,"
a didactic poem. His long didactic poem of " Doomes-
day" appeared in 1614. These works were greatly ad
mired by his contemporaries, but are now obsolete.
He received from James I., by charter, in 1621, the ter
ritory of Nova Scotia, which he afterwards sold to the
French. He was appointed secretary of state for Scot
land in 1626, and received the title of Earl of Stirling in
1633. Died in 1640.

See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;"
"Biographia Britannica."

Alexander, (WILLIAM,) (generally known in Ameri
can history as LORD STIRLING,) a major-general in the
American army of the Revolution, was born in 1726 in
New York, of which his father, a Scotchman, was for
many years the provincial secretary. He served as an
officer in the war with the French and Indians, and at
its close went to Scotland, where he spent a large por
tion of his fortune in an unsuccessful attempt to estab
lish his claim to the estates and earldom of Stirling, of
which many believed him the rightful heir. He early
and warmly espoused the patriotic cause in the war of
the Revolution, and, before the arrival of Washington
from Boston, captured with a small fleet of boats a
British transport in the harbour of New York. He led
the attack in the battle of Long Island, in which he dis
played the most determined courage, but was finally
compelled to surrender, after securing the safe retreat of
a large part of his detachment. On being exchanged,
he at once resumed his command under Washington,
fought with him at Brandyvvine, and especially distin
guished himself at Germantown and Momnouth. In
the last of these engagements he commanded the left
wing of the American army. Through his fidelity, Wash
ington was made acquainted with the intrigues and
cabals of General Con way in 1777. Besides his military
achievements, General Alexander won an honourable
distinction as a mathematician and astronomer. Died
at Albany in 1783.

See WILLIAM A. DUER, "Life of William Alexander, Earl of
Stirling," New York, 1847.

Alexander, (WILLIAM,) an English artist, born at

a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;

ALEXANDER

ALFANI

Maidstone in 1768. He accompanied Lord Macartney
as draughtsman on his embassy to China in 1792, and
published "Views of Chinese Scenery," etc. Died in 1816.

Alexander, (WILLIAM,) a British medical writer,
practised in London. Died in 1783.

Alexander, (WILLIAM LINDSAY,) D.D., a Scottish
writer on theology, born at Lcith in 1808. He became
pastor of a church in Edinburgh. He is author of nu
merous works, among which are " The Connection and
Harmony of the Old and New Testaments," (1841,) and
"Memoirs of Ralph Wardlaw," (1856.)

Alexander ab Alexandro. See ALESSANDRI.

Alexander, (Ben-Moses-Ethu san or-Ethuzan
et-hoo zan.) a German rabbi, born at P\ilda, lived about
1710, and wrote a History of the Jews, (1719.)

Alexander Farnese. See FARNESK.

Alexander de Medici. See MEDICI.

Alexander Polyhistor. See POLYHISTOR.

Alexander Severus. See SKVERUS.

Al-ex-an dra, a daughter of Hyrcanus, was the
mother of Mariamne, the wife of Herod the Great. She
conspired against Herod, and was put to death in 28 u.c.

Alexandre, the French of ALEXANDER, which see.

Alexandre, i lek sS.NclR , (CHARLES,) a philologist,
born in Paris in 1 797. Among his works is a " Greek-ancl-
French Dictionary," ("Dictionnaire Grec-Francais.")

Alexandre, (Dom JACQUES,) a French Benedictine,

Jte a "Treatise on
General Treatise on

born at Orleans in 1653. He wri
Tides," (1726,) and a valuable "G

Alexandre, (NICOLAS,) a French monk and medical
writer, born in Paris in 1654, published a "Botanical
Dictionary," (1716.) Died in 1728.

Alexandre, (Noia,) a French Janscnist theologian,
born at Rouen in 1639. He published, besides other
works, "Dogmatic and Moral Theology," ("Theologia
Dogmatica et Moralis," 10 vols., 1694.) Died in 1724.

See NICERON, "Memoires."

Alexandre-Severe. See SEVERUS.

Al-ex-an-dri nus or Alexandrini, a-lek-san-dRee -
nee, (Jui.ius,) a medical writer, physician to the empe
rors Frederick II., Maximilian, and Rudolph II., was
born at Trent in 1506 ; died in 1590. He translated and
commented on several of Galen s works.

Al-ex-i nus [Gr. A/^h oc] OK ELIS, a disciple of Eu-
bulides, lived about 350 u.c., and distinguished himself as
a logician. He attacked Aristotle and Zeno the Stoic,
and was nicknamed ELENXI NUS, ("the fault-finder.")

Al-ex is, ["A/lfftf;,] a Greek comic poet, an uncle of
the poet Menander, was born at Thurium, and flourished
between 350 and 290 n.c. He removed to Attica in his
youth. He excelled in the delineation of the characters
of Parasites, belonged to the middle school of the Attic
comedy, and was a very prolific writer. Only small frag
ments of his works are extant.

See A. MEINEKE, " Historia Critica Comicorum Gra;conmi."

Alexis, a Greek sculptor, who is mentioned by Pliny
as a pupil of Polycletus, and of whom nothing more is
known. He is supposed by some to have been identical
with the Alexis whom Pausanias mentions as the father
of Cantharus.

Alexis, f lek se , (Gun.LAUMK,) a French Benedictine,
who lived in the latter part of the fifteenth century. He
wrote in verse and prose several works, among which is
"Le Grand Blason de Faulces Amours," "The Great

Blaz
Al

on of False Loves," 1493.)
l-ex is or Al-ex 1-us I.

Al-ex 1-us I., (Com-ne nus,)

or Atefw? Kop T/vo^,] an emperor of Constantinople, born
about 1048. He was of high birth, and became general
of the Byzantian armies, in which capacity he showed
considerable military skill. About 1080 he was pro
claimed emperor by his soldiers, in opposition to Nice-
phorus, who, on the approach of the troops of Alexis,
left his throne for a monastery. It was during the reign
of Alexis that the first crusade to Jerusalem took place.
He died in m8, and was succeeded by his son John.
As a ruler he was more distinguished for craft and in
trigue than for any higher qualities.

See ANNA COMNENA, "Alexias;" GIBBON. "Decline and Fall of

the Roman Em

tory of the Crusades.

re," chaps, xlviii., Ivi., Iviii., lix.; MILL, "His
"

Alexis or Alexius II., (Comne nus,) Emperor of
Constantinople, a son of Manuel, was born about 1168,
and became emperor in 1180. He was deposed and
strangled by Androni cus in 1183.

Alexis or Alexius III., (An ge-lus,) was a
brother of Isaac Angelus, Emperor of Constantinople,
whose throne he usurped in 1195. An army of crusa
ders, whose destination was Palestine, besieged Constan
tinople in 1203, ostensibly to restore Alexis, son of Isaac,
to the throne. (See DANDOLO.) Alexis III. fled on
the capture of the city, and died in exile in 1210.

Alexis or Alexius IV., (Angelus,) a son of Isaac
Angelus, reigned a few months. He was put to death
in 1 204 by Alexis Ducas.

Alexis or Alexius V., (Du cas,) surnamed MUR-
ZU I HLUS, usurped the throne in 1204. The Latin chiefs
who commanded the crusaders, having resolved to par
tition the Empire of the East, took Constantinople by
assault in 1204. Alexis escaped, but was arrested in
the Morea, was tried for the murder of Alexis IV., and
was executed in the same year. He was succeeded by
Baldwin I.

See GIBBON, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire."

Alex is or Alex ius Comne nus is also the name
of several emperors who reigned at Trebizond (Trape-
zus) in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.
They were of the same family as the Alexis Comnenus
noticed above.

Al-ex is or Alexei (a-lek-sa e) Michaelovitch or
Mikhaylovitch me-Kl lo-vitch, Czar of Muscovy,
born in 1629 or 1630, succeeded his father Michael m
1645. H C introduced many improvements, particularly
with respect to the administration of the laws. He also
succeeded in transferring from Poland to Russia the alle
giance of the Cossacks who were attached to the Greek
Church. He may, indeed, be said to have prepared the
way for the great undertakings of his son Peter. (See
PETER I. of Russia.) Died in 1676, and was succeeded
by his son Feodor.

Alexis, a monk, who became Patriarch of Constan
tinople in 1025. In 1042 he crowned the emperor Con-
stantine Monomachus. Died in 1043.

Alexis of Samos, a Greek historian, the author of a
" History of Samos," which is mentioned by Athenaeus.
The period in which he lived is not known.

Alexis Pedemontanus. Sec ALESSIO PIEMONTESE.

Alexis Petrovitch or Petrowitsch, (pa-tRo vitch,)
written also Petrowitz, a Russian prince, born in 1690,
was a son of Peter the Great and his first wife Eudokia.
He is said to have been a studious youth, averse to mar
tial pursuits and hostile to the innovations of his father.
While Peter was absent on one of his long European
tours in 1716, Alexis retired furtively to Vienna and
Naples, for refuge from the dreaded ire of the Czar.
This strange proceeding, which perhaps was as wise as
any course that was open to him in the circumstances,
was treated as a crime by his father. Having been in
duced to return, Alexis was compelled to renounce his
claim to the throne, and was condemned to death on a
charge of meditated rebellion, in 1718. He was found
dead in prison a few days after his sentence was pro
nounced. There are very strong reasons for believing
that he was poisoned by order of the Czar. He left
a son, Peter, who became Czar in 1727.

See VOLTAIRE, "Histoire de Russie;" LEVESQUE, " Hisloire de
Russie;" Sir JOHN BARROW, "Life of Peter the Great, "in the " Fam-
ly Library;" VON HA I.EM, " Leben Peters des Grossen;" EKSCH
und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopxdie."

Alexis del Arco. See ARCO, (ALONSO DEL.)

Aleyn, al en, (CHARLES,) an English poet, who once
had considerable reputation, born, it is supposed, about
1590, was educated at Cambridge, and became tutor to
Sir Edward Shcrburne. His principal poems arc "The
Battles of Crcssy and Poitiers," (1632,) and a "History
of Henry VII., etc.," (1638.) Died about 1640.

See WINSTANI.EY, "Lives of the Poets," 1687.

Alfani, al-fa nee, (DOMENICO Dl PARIS,) an eminent
Italian painter, born at Perugia about 1483, was a pupil
of Pietro Perugino. Among his works are a "Virgin
Mary" and a "Saint John." Died about 1540.

c as /; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JjJf^See Explanations, p. 23.)

ALFANI

ALFONSO

Alfaiii, (ORAZIO Dl PARIS,) an able artist, a son o
the preceding, born at Perugia about 1510. He imi
tated the manner of Raphael with success, and paintec
both in oil and fresco. Among his chief works are
several Madonnas. Died in 1583.

See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."

Alfar. See ELVES.
Al-fa-ra bi-us, [Arab. ALFARABEE or ALFARABI
3.1-fa-ra bee,] the Latin name of a distinguished Ara
bian philosopher who lived at Damascus in the tenth
century. He is said to have understood seventy dif
ferent languages. Besides other works on variou
sciences, he wrote several treatises on the philosophy o:
Aristotle.

Alfarazdak, al-fa raz-d&k , an eminent Arabian poet
of the seventh century.

Alfaro, al-fa/ro, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish silversmith
and artist, who flourished at Seville towards the close
of the sixteenth century. His representations on silver
were designed and executed with great taste.

Alfaro y Gomez, de, di al-fa ro e go meth, (JUAN,
a Spanish painter of high reputation, born at Cordova
in 1640, was a pupil of Castillo and Velasquez. He
worked at Madrid, and excelled in portraits, in which
he imitated the style of Velasquez. Among his best
works is an " Incarnation," at Cordova, and a portrait
of Calderon the poet. He was a brilliant colorist. Died
in 1680.

See BERMUDEZ, " Diccionario Historlco," etc.
Alfath, al-fat , or Alfatah, al-fa ta, a distinguished
Arabian philologist, born at Seville, in Spain, near the
close of the eleventh century. He was put to death
at Morocco in 1135. He wrote a book containing bio
graphical notices of various Arabian poets, with speci
mens of their poetry.

Alfen, tl fen, ( JOHAN EUSEBIUS,) a Danish miniature-
painter, worked in Vienna. Died in 1770.

Al-fe nus Va rus, an eminent Roman jurist, and a
pupil of Servius Sulpicius, lived in the last half of the
first century B.C. He wrote forty books of Digesta,
extracts from which are to be found in the Digest of
Justinian. He is often quoted by other jurists. A pas
sage in Horace Sat. i. 3, v. 130 is supposed to refer to
this Alfenus.

Alferghanee, (Alferghani,) al-fer-oa nee, written
also Alferganee, Alfergany, and Alferganus, some
times called Al-fra-gan , an Arabian astronomer of
the ninth century, was born in Sogdiana. He wrote a
work entitled " Elements of Astronomy," which has
been translated into Latin.

Alfez, al-feV, or Alphesi, al-feVee or al-fa zee,
(ISAAC Berabbi be-rab be,) a rabbi and eminent Jew
ish writer, born near Fez, in Africa, about 1013. Died
in Spain in 1103. His chief work is an abridgment of
the Talmud, called the " Lesser Talmud."
Alf heim. See ELVES.

Alfieri, al-fe-a/ree, (BENEDETTO,) COUNT, an Italian
architect, born in Rome in 1700, was an uncle of the
great poet Alfieri, who, in his own memoirs, speaks of
him as a very worthy man. He designed the Royal
Opera- House of Turin, one of the noblest structures of
the kind in Italy, and was patronized by the king, Charles
Emmanuel. Among his other works are the fa9ade of
Saint Peter s Church at Geneva, and the church at
Carignano. Died at Turin in 1767.

Alfieri, (VITTORIO,) the most celebrated Italian poet
of his age, was born of a noble family at Asti, in Pied
mont, on the 1 7th of January, 1749. He inherited an
ample fortune from his father, who died while Vittorio
was an infant, and was sent to the Accademia or College
ot Turin, in which he received such an education as those
wholly incompetent to teach could impart. He left
school about the age of fifteen, and indulged his passion
for travel and reckless dissipation. He visited Paris,
passed over to England, and sojourned in Holland.
From a second tour through Germany, Sweden, Russia,
etc., he returned to Turin in 1772. He once went to
England on purpose to purchase horses, of which he
was very fond. The success of his first drama, " Cleo
patra," which was performed at Turin in 1775, appears
to have produced a change in his mode of life, which

was thenceforth devoted to study and to dramatic com
position.

In the course of the seven ensuing years he composed
fourteen tragedies, among which are "Filippo II.,"
" Virginia," " Orestes," " Mary Stuart," " Octavia,"
"Merope," and "Saul," (1782.) The first and the last
of these are considered his master-pieces. His dramas
are simple in design, noble in sentiment, sententious in
style, and pervaded by intense passion. About 1778
Alfieri became acquainted with the Countess of Albany,
(wife of the Pretender, Charles Edward Stuart,) who in
spired his wayward heart with a lasting passion. (See
ALBANY, COUNTESS OF.) It is supposed that he was
privately married to her after the death of her husband
in 1788. He resided some years in France, and invested
a large sum of money in French stocks, which he lost
when he iled from the outrages of the Revolution in 1792.
He then became a resident of Florence, and about the
age of forty-six commenced the study of Greek, in which
he made good progress. He translated some of the
plays of /Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.

Among the other works of Alfieri are an Essay on
Tyranny," a translation of Sallust, a number of sonnets
and epigrams, and five odes on the American Revolu
tion. He died at Florence on the 8th of October, 1803.
Notwithstanding his faults, he was a man ot public spirit,
a sincere patriot, and an ardent lover of liberty. A
monument, designed by Canova, was erected to him by
the Countess of Albany in Santa Croce, Florence, be
tween the tombs of Michael Angelo and Machiavel.
"He rarely speaks to the heart," says Ginguene, "but
he is eloquent and nervous in intense passions ; he pos
sesses grandeur, and in his ideas, as well as in his style,
aspires always to the sublime. . . . His dialogue is often
a model of precision and dramatic argumentation."
" The aim of his works," says Madame de Stael, " is so
noble, the sentiments which the author expresses accord
so well with his personal conduct, that his tragedies
ought always to be praised as actions, even when they
may be criticised as literary works." (Corinne.) " A par
allel between Alfieri and Cowper," says Macaulay, (in
his article on Byron, in the "Edinburgh" Review," 1831,)
" may at first sight seem as unpromising as that which
a loyal Presbyterian minister is said to have drawn in
1745 between George the Second and Enoch. . . . But
though the private lives of these remarkable men pre
sent scarcely any points of resemblance, their literary
lives bear a close analogy to each other. They both
found poetry in its lowest state of degradation, feeble,
artificial, and altogether nerveless. They both possessed
precisely the talents which fitted them for the task of
raising it from that deep abasement. . . . They had not
in a very high degree the creative power, but they had
great vigour of thought, great warmth of feeling, and,
what was above all things important, a manliness of
taste which approached to roughness."

See his Autobiography entitled "Vita cli Vittorio Alfieri scritta da
Esr.o," translated into English by C. E. LESTER ; "Vita di Vittorio
41fieri," Milan, 1823; SERAFICO GRASSI, " Dissertazipne in lode di
Vittorio Alfieri," 1819; ANTONIO ZEZON. " Biografia di Vittorio Al
fieri," 1835; LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" VILLE-
MAIX, " Cours de Literature;" A. BUCCEI.LINI, " Elo^io deVittoric
Alfieri," 1811 ; R. SOUTHEY, article on the Life and Writings of
\lfieri, in the " Quarterly Review" for January, 1816.

Alfon, al-fon , (JUAN,) a Spanish painter, born at
Toledo, lived about 1418.

Alfonse, aTfoNs , (JF.AN,) a French navigator of the
sixteenth century, was a native of Saintonge, whence his
surname LE SAINTONGEOIS, (leh saN toN zhwa .) He
nade several voyages of discovery in the South Seas,
an account of which was published in 1559, entitled
Voyages Adventureux du Capitaine Jean Alfonse."

Al-fon so I., surnamed EL BATALLADOR, ?1 ba-tal-
7 a-doR r , (i.e. the "battler" or "warrior,") King of Ara-
gon and Navarre, ascended the throne in 1104. He
fell in battle in 1134. He had, it is said, previously de
feated the Mohammedans in thirty-nine successive con
flicts, and taken from them a much greater extent of
territory than he had inherited from his ancestors. He
was succeeded by his brother, Ramiro II.

Alfonso II. of Aragon, a grandson of Ramiro II.,
born in 1152, became king in 1163. He inherited Bar-

a, e, i, o, ft, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ti, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;

ALFONSO

9 1

ALFONSO

celona from his father, Raymond V., and extended his
dominions at the expense of the Mussulmans. Died in
1196, leaving the throne to his son, Pedro II.

Alfonso III. of Aragon, born about 1265, was a son
of Pedro III., whom he succeeded in 1285. The Cortes
asserted their privileges with success in this reign, and
set bounds to the royal prerogative. He died in 1291,
and was succeeded by his brother, Jaime II.

Alfonso IV. of Aragon, a son of Jaime II., began
to reign in 1327. He waged a war against the Genoese,
who invaded his kingdom, but were repulsed. Died in
1336, and was succeeded by his son, Pedro IV.

See ZUKITA, "Annales de Aragon."

Alfonso V. OF ARAGON. See ALFONSO I. OF NA
PLES.

Alfonso I., King of Asttirias, ascended the throne
in 739 A.I). He gained many victories over the Mos
lems, and took from them a multitude of towns and for
tresses. From his zeal for religion, evinced in building
churches and founding monasteries, etc., he received the
surname of EL CATOLICO, ("the Catholic.") Died in 756.

Alfonso II. of Asturias, surnamed EL CASTO,
("the Chaste,") succeeded to the throne in 791 A.D. He
was distinguished for his successful wars against the
Mohammedans. lie died in 842, after a prosperous
reign of more than fifty years.

Alfonso III. of Asturias and Leon, surnamed EL
MAGNO, ("the Great,") succeeded his father Ordono
in 866 A.D. He greatly extended his dominions by con
quests from the Mohammedans. Died in 910, leaving
the throne to his son Garcia.

Alfonso I. of Castile, (or Alfonso VI. of Leon,)
surnamed EL BRAVO, SI bra vo, ("the Brave, . ) a son of
Fernando I., ascended the throne of Leon in 1065. On
the death of his brother, Sancho II. of Castile, in 1073,
Galicia, Asturias, Castile, etc. were added to his sway.
He acquired great renown in his wars against the
Moors. His reign may be considered as the dawn of
Christian prosperity in modern Spain. Died in 1109,
aged seventy-nine.

Alfonso II. of Castile, (called Alfonso VII. of
Leon by some historians, who count Alfonso I. of
Castile as VI. of Leon,) named also Alfonso Ray
mond, a grandson of the preceding, ascended the throne
in 1126. He was very successful in his wars with the
Mohammedans, and removed the frontiers of Castile
from the Tagus to the Sierra Morcna Mountains. In
1135 he assumed the imperial title, and is accordingly
sometimes styled "the Emperor." Died in 1157, leav
ing Castile to his son Sancho, and Leon to his son Fer
nando. The written language of Spain is supposed to
date from about the beginning of the reign of Alfonso
VII., and the oldest Spanish document of which the
date is known is one given by Alfonso VII. to the city
of Aviles, in Asturias, in confirmation of certain privi
leges previously granted.

See TICKNOR S " Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. ii.

Alfonso VIII. of Castile, called by some Alfonso
III., surnamed EL NOBLE, el no iila, ("the Noble,")
succeeded to the throne in 1158, when he was only three
years old. After he became of age he was almost con
stantly engaged in war with the Mohammedans. In
1 195 he sustained a severe defeat from the arms of Aboo-
Yoosuf-Yakoob ; but in 1212, with the kings of Aragon
and Navarre, he gained a great victory over the Almo-
hade sultan Mohammed An-Nasir, at the head of 600,000
men. Tne loss of the Mohammedans, as estimated by
their own writers, was not less than 160,000. Alfonso
died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son, Enrique I.

Alfonso XI. of Castile, a son of Fernando IV.,
succeeded to the throne in 1312, when he was only a year
old. In 1333, aided by Alfonso IV. of Portugal , whose
daughter he had married, he turned his arms against
the Moors, and in 1340 gained a great victory over the
sultan Abool-Hassan (or Alboacen) under the walls of
Tarifa, then besieged by the Mohammedan forces. He
died in 1350, respected even by his enemies. The
Moorish king of Granada is said to have exclaimed,
when he heard of Alfonso s death, "We have lost the
best king in the world, one who knew how to honour

the worthy, whether friend or foe." He was succeeded
by his son, Pedro the Cruel.

See MARIANA, " Historia general de Espana."

Alfonso I., H., and III. OF LEON. See ALFONSO OF

ASTURIAS.

Alfonso IV. of Leon and Asturias, surnamed THE
MONK, succeeded his uncle Fruela in 924. He abdi
cated in favour of his brother Ramiro about 930, and
became a monk. Died about 932.

Alfonso V., King of Leon, born in 994, succeeded
his father, Bermudo II., in 999. His reign was pros
perous, and his armies gained several victories over the
Moors. He was killed at the siege of Viseu in 1028,
and was succeeded by his son, Bermudo III.

Alfonso VI. OF LEON. See ALFONSO I. OF CASTILF..

Alfonso VII. OF LEON. See ALFONSO II. OF CAS
TILE.

Alfonso IX., King of Leon, succeeded his father
Fernando II. in nG8. He waged war against Alfonso
of Castile, and afterwards married his daughter. Died
in 1230, leaving a son Fernando, who was King of Cas
tile and Leon.

Alfonso X., King of Leon and Castile, surnamed
EL SAHIO, el sa ce-o, ("the Wise,") born in 1226, was a
son of Fernando III., whom he succeeded in 1252. He
had a high reputation for learning and eloquence, and
was distinguished for the patronage he extended to
science and literature ; but he was not a successful or
popular ruler. His reign was disturbed by civil wars,
one of which was instigated by his second son, Sancho,
about 1281. The situation of Alfonso was so desperate
that he solicited aid from the Moors. Spain owes to him
an excellent code of laws, a translation of the Bible
into Castilian, the restoration of the University of Sala
manca, and the first use of the Castilian language in
public affairs. Europe is indebted to him for the valu
able astronomical tables called Alphonsine Tables.
Died in 1284.

See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap, iii.;
LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" CONDE, "Historia
de la Domination de los Arabes en Espana;" MARIANA, "Historia
general de Espafia ;" MARQUIS DE MONUEJAR, " Memorias historicas
del Key Don Alfonso el Sabio."

Alfonso I. of Naples, Sicily, and Aragon, born in
1385, succeeded his father Fernando I. on the throne of
Aragon in 1416. He had been adopted as the heir of
Queen Joanna of Naples, and in 1442, seven years after
the death of that princess, and after encountering much
opposition, he obtained possession of the whole Neapoli
tan kingdom. Died in 1458. He was a man of learning,
and a liberal patron of literature and science. His son
Ferdinand became King of Naples.

See FACIO, " Fatti d Alfonso d Aragona."

Alfonso II., King of Naples, born in 1448, was a
son of Ferdinand I. He defeated the Florentines at
Poggio in 1479, and the Turks at Otranto in 1481. He
ascended the throne in January, 1494, and rendered him
self odious by his cruelty and avarice. Alarmed at the
approach of Charles VIII. of France with an army, he
abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand in January,
1495, and died about the end of that year.

See GIANNONE, "Storia del Regno di Napoli."

Alfonso I., [Port. AFFONSO,] or, more fully, Dem Af-
fonso Enriques, doN af-fon so n-ree kes, the founder
of the Portuguese monarchy, son of Henry of Besancon,
Count of Toulouse, was born in 1094. He inherited
the title of Count of Portugal from his father, who had
received it from Alfonso I. of Castile, his father-in-law.
Enriques was yet a child when his father died, and Por
tugal was for along time under the rule, or rather mis
rule, of his mother Theresa ; but in 1 128 he took the su
preme authority into his own hands. Alfonso VIII. (or
more properly III.) of Castile, having supported the
claims of Theresa, Enriques met him in the field, de
feated him, and established the entire independence of
Portugal. He did not, however, take the title of king
till 1139, when, at the head of about 13,000 Portuguese,
he completely routed, at Ourique, the combined army
of the Mohammedans, amounting, it is said, to 2OO,cco
men, and made prisoners the five kings by whom this
mighty host was led. In 1146 he took Santarem from

e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

anations, p.

ALFONSO

ALFRED

the Moors Oy assault, and in the same year, or early in
the next, reduced Lisbon, after a siege of more than rive
months. He turned his arms successively against the
other towns and fortresses in possession of the Moham
medans, and in 1 158 became undisputed possessor of his
kir-gdom. Died in 1185, aged ninety. He left a son,
who became King Sancho I.

See MARIANA, " Historia de Esp.ina;" SCHAEFFER, "Histoire
du Portugal."

Alfonso (or Affoiiso) II. of Portugal, a son of San
cho I., was born in 1185, and began to reign in 1211.
His kingdom was placed under an interdict by the pope
because he taxed the property of the clergy. Alfonso
was thus reduced to submission. He died in 1223, leav
ing the throne to his son, Sancho II.

Alfonso (Alfonso) 111., a son of the preceding, born
in 1210, succeeded his brother Sancho II. in 1248. His
reign was rather prosperous, though he was once excom
municated by the pope. He died in 1279, and was suc
ceeded by his son Denis, (Diniz.)

Alfonso (Affonso) IV. of Portugal, surnamed THE
BRAVE, a son of Denis, was born in 1290, and began
to reign in 1325. Among the remarkable events of his
reign was the rebellion of his son Dom Pedro, whose
motive was revenge for the murder of Iries de Castro,
to which the king had consented. He died in 1357,
leaving the throne to his son, Pedro I.

Alfonso (Affonso) V. of Portugal, a son of Duarte,
was born in 1432, and became king in 1438, under the
regency of his mother. He conducted a large armament
against Africa in 1458, and captured Tangier. Having
invaded Castile, he was defeated by Ferdinand of Ara-
gon in 1476. He died in 1481, and was succeeded by his
son Joao II.

See MARIANA, "Historia de Espana."

Alfonso (Affonso) VI. of Portugal, a son of John
IV., was born in 1643, and became king in 1656. His
imbecility or vices having rendered him unpopular, he
was forced to abdicate in 1667 in favour of his brother
Dom Pedro, and was banished to Terceira. He was con
fined in the castle of Cintra in 1675, and died in 1683.

Alfonso I. of Este, Duke of Fcrrara, born in 1476,
Jjegan to reign in 1505. He commanded the Papal
troops in the war of the League of Cambrai, I59- In
1512 he fought against the Pope, Julius II., at Ravenna.
He married the famous Lucretia Borgia. Died in 1534.

Alfonso, (the Navigator.) See ALPHONSE.

Alfonso, al-fon so, (PEDRO,) a Spanish Jew, who was
born in Aragon in 1062, and was converted to Chris
tianity. He wrote after his conversion, besides other
works, one called "Clerical Discipline," ("Disciplina
Clericalis,") which was much esteemed. Died about
1140.

Alfonso OF CARTHAGENA, (or DE CARTAGENA, da
kaR-ta-na na,) [Lat. ALPHON SUS A SANC TA-MARI A,]
a celebrated Spanish historian, born at Carthagena (or
Cartagena) in 1396, became Bishop of Burgos. He
wrote a " History of Spain," from the earliest ages down
to his own time, and other works. Died in 1456.

Alfonso de Cartagena. See ALFONSO OF CAR
THAGENA.

Alfonso Lopez de Corella, (lo peth da ko-rel ya,)
a Spanish physician, born in Navarre, wrote numerous
medical works, dated 1546-82.

Alfonso de Palencia, (de pa-leVshe-a,) [Sp. pron.
al-fon so da pa-len //5e-a ; Lat. ALPHON SUS PALENTI -
NUS,] a distinguished Spanish historian, born at Palen
cia, in Old Castile, in 1423. He was royal historiogra
pher to Queen Isabella of Castile. The precise time
of his death is unknown. He was alive in 1492. He
wrote in Latin a history of the reign of Isabella, and a
chronicle of Henry IV.

See PRESCOTT, " Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i.

Alfonso Tostado. See ALPHONSUS ABULENSIS.

Alford, awl forcl, (HENRY,) D.D., commonly known
as DEAN ALFORD, an English poet and divine, born
in London in 1810, was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge. He became vicar of Wymeswold, Leices
tershire, in 1835, Hulsean Lecturer at Cambridge in
1841, incumbent of Quebec Street Chapel, London, in
1853, and Dean of Canterbury about 1856. He pub

lished in 1835 "The School of the Heart, and other
Poems," (2 vols.,) which are commended. " The present
volumes," says the "Edinburgh Review," "appear to us
to be a beginning of great promise. . . . Extracts so
much longer than we are in the habit of making, are a
sufficient proof of our sense of the talent displayed in
these poems." (Critique on "The School of the Heart,
and other Poems," January, 1836.) His reputation as
a divine is founded on an excellent edition of the Greek
New Testament in four or more volumes, 1841-61. He
has also published a small volume entitled "The Queen s
English," (2d edition, 1864,) which has attracted much
attention.

Alford, (MICHAEL,) an English Jesuit and writer,
born in London in 1587 ; died at Saint Omer, in France,
in 1651. He wrote "Britannia Illustrata," (1641,) treat
ing of the ecclesiastical history of Britain.

Alfragan. See ALFERGHANEE.

Alfrago, al-fKa go, (ANDREA,) an Italian physician,
wrote a history of Arabian physicians, etc. Died at
Padua in 1520.

Alfred, al fred, written also -SJl fred, El fred, and
Alured, i.e. Alvred, [Lat. /ELFRE DUS,] surnamed
THE GREAT, King of the West Saxons in England, was
born in 848 or 849. He was the son of King /Ethel-
wulf and Osburga, (or Osberga,) the daughter of a Gothic
nobleman. On the death of his brother /Ethelred, in
871, Alfred became king. At this period the country
was in the most deplorable condition. The Danes had
overrun a great portion of England, and many of the
bravest Saxons had fallen in vain attempts to resist their
pagan invaders. King Ethelred himself had died of a
wound received in this unequal conflict. Alfred was
fain to procure peace on almost any terms, and at last
agreed to pay the Danes a sum of money on condition
that they would leave his dominions. But they broke
their oaths, and, attacking him by night, destroyed all his
cavalry. All the means of resistance being lost, Alfred
for a time laid aside the ensigns of royalty and concealed
himself in the family of a poor herdsman. Having at
length been discovered by some of his nobles, he grad
ually, but secretly, collected a considerable force, with
which he occasionally made inroads into the territory
occupied by the Danes, and thus procured the means of
subsisting himself and his army. About this time Odun,
Earl of Devon, sallied from his castle, defeated the be
siegers, slew Ubbo, one of the principal leaders, and
took the Danish standard. Upon this, Alfred resolved
to attack the main army of his enemies, which he routed
with great slaughter at Eddington in 878, and soon after
obliged the survivors to surrender at discretion. The
Danish king, Godrun, (or Guthrun,) embraced the Chris
tian religion, Alfred standing as his godfather ; and a
considerable tract of country was allotted to the con
verted Danes. Alfred now directed his earnest efforts
towards the fortifying and internal improvement of his
kingdom. He caused a number of ships to be built, and
may be said to have laid the foundation of the British
navy. He repaired the old dilapidated fortresses, and
erected new ones wherever they were needed. He ex
erted himself, moreover, to establish an efficient police
and a thorough administration of justice within his
dominions. He was not, however, as has frequently been
stated, the author of the trial by jury. It was his highest
glory that he did so much for his country s literature and
the intellectual improvement of his people. He not
only established schools in all the principal towns, but
he began himself, it is said, to learn Latin at the age of
thirty-nine, and afterwards translated a number of works
from that language into his native tongue. In 894 the
Northmen again invaded England, with a fleet of three
hundred ships ; but they were defeated by Alfred, and
those who escaped the sword were either taken captive
and executed as pirates or chased from the kingdom.
Alfred died in 901.

Alfred the Great presents to us one of the most per
fect characters to be found on the page of history. He
was, to use the language of a recent author, "a saint with
out superstition, a scholar without ostentation, a warrior
all whose wars were fought in defence of his country, a
conqueror whose hands were never stained by cruelty, a

a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mt; nfit; good; moon.;

ALFRED

AL-HOMATDEE

prince never cast down by adversity, never lifted up to
insolence in the day of triumph." (See Freeman s " Nor
man Conquest," vol. i. chap, ii.; also, Hume s character
of Alfred in his " History of England," vol. i. chap, ii.)

See J. A. GILES, " Life and Times of Alfred the Great," 1854;
SPELMAN, "Life of Alfred," 1709; A. BICKNELL, "Life of Alfred,"
1777; STOLBERG, " Leben Alfreds des Grossen," 1815; ASSER,
"Life of Alfred," ("De Aelfredi Rebus gestis," 1571 ;) RICHARD
PAUI.I.I, " Kbnig Alfred und seine Stelle in derGeschichte Englands,"
London, 1851, translated into English by THOMAS WRIGHT, 1852.

Alfred, a son of the Saxon king Ethelred II., and
Emma. He attempted to obtain the throne in 1042, but
failed, and lost his life.

Alfred, surnamed AN GLICUS (or the " Englishman")
and THE PHILOSOPHER, wrote some scientific works,
one, " On the Motion of the Heart," (" De Cordis Motu.")
A part of his life was passed in England ; but the place
of his nativity is unknown. Died about 1270.

Alfred or Alured OF BEVERLEY, an English historian,
born about i too, became a priest. He left a Latin His
tory of Britain, which is supposed to be an abridgment
of the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth.

Alfred OF MALMESBURY, an English monk and
writer, became Bishop of Crediton about 990.

Alfred, (ERNEST ALBERT,) Duke of Edinburgh, the
second son of Victoria, Queen of England, was born in
1844. He entered the navy in 1858, and made voyages
to various countries. In 1862 he declined the throne of
Greece, which had been offered to him. He was shot at
and wounded by an assassin in Australia in 1 868.

Alfred and A-bi ram, two German architects, born
in Bavaria, lived in the ninth century. They built the
imperial palace of Ratisbon.

Alfric, al frik, written also -SJlfric and Elfric, [Lat.
ALFRI CUS, /ELFRI CUS, or ELFRI CUS,] surnamed ABBAS,
(the "Abbot,") andGRAMMATicus, (the "Grammarian,")
a celebrated Anglo-Saxon writer, who flourished in the
latter half of the tenth century. Of his life nothing cer
tain is known. It is supposed that he became Archbishop
of Canterbury in 995. Among his works are numerous
homilies.

Alfric or ^Elfric, Archbishop of York, an Anglo-
Saxon writer, who is by some identified with the famous
writer Alfric surnamed Grammaticus, above noticed.
Died in 1051.

Algardi, al-gaR dee, (ALESSANDRO,) a celebrated
Italian sculptor and architect, born at Bologna about
1600. His birth is variously dated at 1588, 1593, and
1602. He studied design with the Caracci, became a
pupil of Cesare Conventi, and went to Rome about 1625.
He was architect of the Villa Panfili or Pamphili, and
of the fafade of the church of St. Ignatius, Rome. His
master-piece in sculpture is a colossal bas-relief* in the
church of Saint Peter s, representing Saint Leo forbid
ding Attila to enter Rome, (1640.) This is said to be the
largest bas-relief in the world. Among his works are
statues of Saint Philip de Ned and Innocent X. He is
regarded by some critics as the greatest sculptor of his
age. Died in 1654.

See PASSERI, "Vitede" Pittori,"etc. ; MILIZIA, " Vite degli Archi-
tetti."

Algarotti, al-ga-rot tee, (FRANCESCO,) COUNT, a dis
tinguished Italian writer and connoisseur, born at Venice
in 1712. He was not only well versed in many languages
and sciences, but possessed decided skill in the art of
design, and wrote verses with facility. In 1733 he pro
duced popular dialogues on Optics, entitled "Optics for
Ladies," ("Neutonianismo per le Dame,") which were
translated into several languages. Invited by Frederick
the Great, he went to Berlin about 1740, and passed
many years at that court as a friend of the king, who
gave him the title of count. This friendship continued
until the death of Algarotti. He corresponded with Vol
taire and many other eminent authors. Besides essays
on various subjects, he wrote "Letters on Painting,"
which display good taste and judgment. He died at
Pisa in March, 1764.

See D. MlCHELESSI, " Memorie intorno alia vita del Conte F. Al
garotti," 1770, and French version of the same, 1772; FABRONI,

* Some authorities call Algardi s great work an alto-relievo ; we
have followed the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."

"Vita? Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" and VOLTAIRE, "Correspon-
dance Generale."

Algazi, al-ga zee, (Solomon Ben Abraham,) a

voluminous Jewish writer, born in the Levant. Died in
1683.

Algazzali, Algazali, or Alghazzali. See Auoo-
HAMID-ALGHAZALEE.

Alger, al jer, [Fr. pron. tl zhaiit ; Lat. AI/GERUS,]
an ecclesiastical writer, who died about the middle of the
twelfth century. He was a native of Liege.

Alger, al jer, (WILLIAM ROUNSEVILLE,) an Ameri
can writer, born in Freetown, Massachusetts, in 1823.
He is author of "Symbolic History of the Cross of
Christ;" "Oriental Poetry;" " History of the Doctrine
of a Future Life, as it has Prevailed in all Nations and
Ages," (1862,) to which was contributed a very complete
bibliography of the subject, by Ezra Abbot, assistant
librarian at Harvard University; and various other works.
Mr. Alger has furnished numerous contributions to the
" Christian Examiner" and other periodicals.

Alghafikee or Alghafiki, al-Ga fe-kee , an eminent
physician, who lived in Mohammedan Spain in the
twelfth century. Died about 1164.

Alghisi, al-gee see, sometimes written Algisi, (FRAN
CESCO,) an Italian musical composer, born at Brescia in
1666. He composed two operas, one of which, called
"II Trionfo clella Continenza," ("The Triumph of Con
tinence,") had a great success. Died in 1733.

Alghisi, (GALASSO,) an Italian architect of the six
teenth century, born at Carpi. He published a splendid
work on fortifications, ("Delia Fortificazione," 1570.)

Alghisi, (TOMMASO,) a distinguished Italian surgeon,
born at Florence in 1669. He particularly excelled in
lithotomy, on which he wrote an able treatise, (1707.)
Died in 1713.

Algrin, fi guaN , QEAN,) a French theologian, who
became Archbishop of Besai^on. Died in 1237.

Alhakem or Al-Hakem (al-hak em) I., Sultan of
Cordova, began to reign in 796 A.D. He waged war
against Alfonso of Asturias and the Franks, and sup
pressed with great cruelty a rebellion in Cordova. Died
in 822.

Alhakem II., Sultan and Caliph of Cordova, suc
ceeded his father Abd-er-Rahman III. in 961. He was a
pacific and enlightened sovereign, and was celebrated as
a patron of literature and science. His reign has been
called the golden age of Arabian literature. He col
lected a great library, and expended vast sums in the
erection of colleges, mosques, hospitals, etc. He died
in 976, aged sixty-three, and was succeeded by his son
His ham (or Hescham) II.

Al-Hakem-Ibii-Atta, al-ha kem Ib n at ti , com
monly called Al-Mo-ken na, ( -Mo-caia na or -Mu-
kamia, moo-kan na,) or " the veiled one," a famous
impostor, who arose in the time of Aboo-Jaafar Al-Man-
soor, the second caliph of the Abbasside dynasty. He
first made his appearance as a legislator and prophet at
Merv or Meru, the capital of Khorassan, in 774 A.D.
About 780 the caliph Mahdee (Mahcli) sent an army
that besieged the impostor in his principal fortress.
When Al-Hakem found that there was no chance of
escape, he administered, it is said, a mortal poison to
those about his person, and afterwards burned their
bodies to ashes, so that no vestige might be left; and,
the better to impress posterity with the idea of his divine
character, he plunged into a large caldron filled with a
liquid so powerful and penetrating that no part of his
body remained unconsumed. The truth appears to have
j been, that he burned himself in the castle in which he
was, so that no trace of him remained except ashes.
This story forms the basis of Moore s poem entitled
"Mokanna, or the Veiled Prophet of Khorassan."

See WEIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. ii. chap, iii.; D HER-
BELOT, " Bibliotheque Orientale ;" ABUI.PHARAGIUS, " Historia Dy-
nastiarum ;" ABULFEDA, " Annales Moslemici."

Alhazan or Alhazen, written also Alhaceii and
Alhasan, al-haz an, an Arabian philosopher and mathe
matician, native of Bassora, celebrated as the author of
a treatise on optics, of great merit. Died at Cairo about
1038.

Al-Homaydee or Al-Homaydi, al-ho-ml uee , a clis-

e as k; ; as s; g hard; g as j; G,n, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

ALHOY

AL1X

Alinard, ll e-nard or f le nf u/, written also Hali-
nard, a learned French prelate, born in Burgundy about
990, became Archbishop of Lyons in 1046. Died in 1052.

A-lip i-us, a friend of Saint Augustine, was an emi
nent lawyer. Having been baptized by Saint Ambrose
in 387 A.D., he became Bishop of Tagaste. Died about
428.

Aliprandi, a-le-pRan dee, (BUONAMENTE,) an Italian
poet, native of Mantua. He wrote a history of Mantua
and other cities of Italy, a work of little merit. Died
in 1414.

Alisaunder, one of the modes in which Chaucer
writes the name of ALEXANDER the Great.

Al i-son, (ALEXANDER,) a British writer, born in Scot
land about 1812. He published, besides other works,
"The Philosophy and History of Civilization," (1860,)
and is about to publish, it is said, "The Church and the
World Reconciled."

Alison, (Rev. ARCHIBALD,) a Scottish writer, born
in Edinburgh in 1757. He took orders in the Anglican
Church in 1784, and married the same year a daughter
of the well-known Dr. John Gregory of Edinburgh.
He became curate of Kenlcy, Shropshire, in 1790, and
vicar of Ercall in 1794. In 1790 he published "Essays
on the Nature and Principles of Taste," a popular work,
which Lord Jeffrey made the subject of a laudatory article
in the "Edinburgh Review" in 1811. He became senior
minister of the Episcopal Chapel, Cowgate, Edinburgh,
in 1800. Two volumes of his sermons were published.

"We do not know any sermons," says the "Edin
burgh Review" for September, 1814, "so pleasing, or so
likely both to be popular and to do good to those who
are pleased with them. All the feelings are generous
and gentle all the sentiments liberal and all the gen
eral views just and ennobling." Died in 1839.

See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
Supplement, vol. v. ; "Gentleman s Magazine," September, 1839.

Alison, (Sir ARCHIBALD,) a historian, a son of the
preceding, was born at Kenley, Shropshire, in Decem
ber, 1792. He was educated in Edinburgh, studied law,
and was called to the Scottish bar in 1814. In 1828 he
was chosen sheriff of Lanarkshire. He gained distinc
tion by his "Principles of Criminal Law," (1832.) His
most important work is a " History of Europe from the
Commencement of the French Revolution to the Resto
ration of the Bourbons, 1815," (istvol., 1839,) which has
been eminently successful. The ninth edition was pub
lished in 1853-55, I2 vo s - "It i s upon the whole,"
says the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1842, "a
valuable addition to European literature, evidently com
piled with the utmost care : its narration, so far as we
can judge, is not perverted by the slightest partiality.
... Its merits are minuteness and honesty qualities
which may well excuse a faulty style, gross political
prejudices, and a fondness for exaggerated and frothy
declamation." He published in 1847 "The Life of
John, Duke of Marlborough," (3d edition, 1855,) and in
1852-57 a continuation of his "History of Europe" to
the year 1852, (6 vols.) The latter work is not so able
nor so popular as his first history. He was created a
baronet in 1852. His political sympathies were ultra-
conservative. He was the author of several other
works, among which are "Essays, Political, Historical,
etc.," (3 vols., 1850,) originally published in " Blackwood s
Magazine." Died near Glasgow in May, 1867.

See a review of his History in " Blackwood s Magazine " for
July, 1840.

Alison, (WILLIAM PULTENEY,) an eminent physician
and physiologist, son of the Rev. Archibald Alison,
born in Edinburgh in 1790. He became professor of
medical jurisprudence at Edinburgh in 1820, and was
appointed professor of the institutes of medicine in 1828.
In 1830 he published "First Lines of Physiology." He
became professor of the practice of medicine in the
University of Edinburgh in 1832, and published "Out
lines of Physiology and Pathology" in 1833. He re
ceived the title of "First Physician to the Queen for
Scotland." Died in Edinburgh in 1859.

Alix, 3 le.ss , or Alice, a l iss, (called by the older
writers Adela, Ada, and Ala,) a daughter of Theobald,
(Thibaud le Grand,) Count of Champagne, was married

a, e,T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;

tinguished Arabian writer, born at Majorca in 1029.
\mong his works is a valuable biography of the distin
guished Moslems of Spain. Died at Bagdad about 1095.

Alhoy, 5 lwd , (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at
Angers in 1755, succeeded Abbe Sicard as Director of
the Institution for Deaf-Mutes in 1797. He wrote "Les
Hospices," a poem. Died in 1826.

Ali. See ALEE.

Ali, (PACHA.) See ALEE-WELEE-ZADE.

Aliamet, t le-3 mi or il yS m.V, (FRANgois GER
MAIN,) a French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1734,
was a brother of Jacques, noticed below, to whom he was
inferior in skill. He worked some years in London,
and engraved historical works after the Italian masters.

Aliamet, (JACQUES,) a skilful French engraver, born
at Abbeville in 1727; died in Paris in 1788. He ex
celled in landscapes and sea-pieces. His engravings,
after Vernet, are much admired.

Alibaud, t le bo , (Louis,) a French fanatic, born at
Nimes in 1810. He attempted to assassinate Louis
Philippe with a pistol in June, 1836, and was guillotined
in July of the same year.

Ali Beg, a lee beg, a native of Poland, was captured
in childhood by Tartars, who sold him to a Turk. He
became dragoman to the sultan, and translated the Bible
into the Turkish language. Died in 1675.

Alibert, t le baiR , (JEAN Louis,) an eminent French
physician, born in Aveyron in 1766. He became one of
the chief physicians of the Hospital Saint Louis, Paris,
in 1801, and professor of medicine in 1802. In 1814 he
was appointed consulting physician to Louis XVIII., and
a few years later was made first physician-in-ordinary.
He gave special attention to diseases of the skin, on which
he wrote a work of much merit, called " Description of
Diseases of the Skin," (" Description des Maladies de
la Peau," 1806-25.) He was author of other medical
works, written in an elegant style. Died in 1837.

See QUERARD, "La France Litte raire."

Aliberti, a-lc-be R tee, (GIANCARLO,) an Italian fresco-
painter, born at Asti, in Piedmont, in 1680; died about
1740. His chief works were executed at his native city.

Ali Bey, a lee ba, the assumed name of Domingo
Badia y Leblich, do-ming go ba-dee a e la-blek , a
Spanish traveller and projector, born in Biscay in 1766.
He travelled in the disguise of a Mussulman, and pub
lished " Travels in Asia and Africa, 1803-1807," (3 vols.,
1814.) Died in 1818.

See the "Quarterly Review" for July, 1816.

Alibrandi, a-le-bRan dee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
Jesuit and casuist, born at Messina. Died in 1711.

Alibrandi, (GIROLAMO,) a distinguished painter,
called " the Raphael of Messina," where he was born in
1470. His manner resembled that of Leonardo da
Vinci, with whom he studied. Died of the plague in
1524. His master-piece is a " Purification of the Virgin."

See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."

Alidosi, a-le-do see, (GIOVANNI NiccoL6 PASQUALE,)
an antiquary of Bologna. Died about 1630.

Alighieri. See DANTE.

Aligiian, i len y6N r , Benedict of, [Fr. BENOIT
D ALIGNAN, beh-nwa dS lin yo.V,] a French Benedict
ine monk, who was elected Bishop of Marseilles in 1229.
Died in 1268.

Aligre, t legR , (F/riENNE FRANgois,) born about 1726,
became president of the Parliament of Paris in 1 768, which
office he held for twenty years. Died in exile in 1798.

Ali, Hyder. See HY DER ALEE.

Al-i-men tus, (Lucius CINCIUS,) a Roman histo
rian of merit, became tribune of the people in 214 B.C.,
and prastor in 210. He received with the province of
Sicily the command of two legions which had been de-
feated_ at Cannae and were afterwards condemned to
serve in Sicily. Some time after 208 he was taken pris
oner by Hannibal, who appears to have treated him with
great respect. He wrote, in Greek, a history of Rome
from the foundation of the city to his own time, and
other works, on law, grammar, etc. His diligence and
erudition are commended by Livy. Only fragments of
his works are extant.

See NIEBUHR, " History of Rome ;" AULUS GELLIUS, xvi. ; Voss,
De Histoncis Latinis."

AL1X

ALLATWS

to Louis VII., King of France, in 1160; died in 1206.
Her son became King Philippe Auguste.

Alix, 3 less , (MATTHIEU FRANCOIS,) a French phy
sician, born in Paris in 1738. He was professor of anat
omy at Fulda, and wrote a work of merit, entitled "Sur
gical Observations," (" Observata Chirurgica," 1774-78.)
Died at Briickenau in 1782.

Albc, (PIERRE,) a French priest, born at Dole in 1600,
became a canon at Besancon. He defended against the
pope, in several tracts, the rights of his chapter in regarci
to the election of archbishops. Died in 1676.

Alix, (P. M.,) a French engraver, born 171:2 ; died 1800.

A 1 T_ 1-i _ A 1 T 1-

Bagdad about 947, succeeded to the throne in 991; died
in 1031 or 1032. He received and protected at his court
Firdousee, (Firdausi,) the celebrated Persian poet, who
fled from the anger of Mahmood of Gazna.

Al-Kahir-Billah, al-ka hjr bil la, (i.e. "victorious
by the grace of God,") a caliph of the house of Abbas,
who ascended the throne in 929. His tyranny and
cruelty rendered him an object of execration, and caused
his dethronement after a reign of rather more than a year.

Alkaios. See ALC.^US.

Al-Kasim-Ibn-Hammood, (-Hammud,) al-ka -
sim Ib n ham modcl , a sultan of Cordova, dethroned by
his nephew Yahya in 1024.

Al-Kayim, al-ka yim or al-kl yim, a caliph of the
house of Abbas, succeeded his father Al-Kader-Billah
about 1031. Died in 1073.

Alkemade, van, vt n al-keh-ma deh^KoRNELis,)
a Dutch antiquary, born in 1654. He was first commis
sioner of import and export duties at Rotterdam. He
published, besides other works, a curious treatise on old
Dutch customs in civil life, entitled "Nederlandsche
Displechtighcden," (3 vols., 1732.) Died in 1737.

Al-Khazrejee or Al-Khazreji, al-Kaz reh-jce , an
excellent historian of Mohammedan Spain, supposed to
have lived about the end of the twelfth century.

Alkhowareznii,al-k6w-a-rez mee, an Arabian math
ematician, lived about 810-830 A.D. He was librarian
to Al-Mamoon at Bagdad.

Alkibiades. See ALCIUIADES.

Alkindi, Alkindus, or Alkendi. See ALCHINDUS.

Alkmazi. See ALCMAN.

Alkmar or Alkmaar, van, vtn alk-mSR , (HENRY,
or HINREK,) a Low-German poet, who lived in the latter
half of the fifteenth century, was the author or first trans
lator of a celebrated poem and satire, "Reynard the
Fox," which he published in Low German at Liibcck in
1498. In the preface he states that he translated it from
the Walsch (supposed to be the Walloon) and the
French, and that he was a schoolmaster and teacher of
virtue in the service of the Duke of Lorraine. The
original is lost, if it ever existed. The poem of Alk
mar is one of the most popular in the language, and has
been translated into several other languages. Goethe
produced a modern German version of it in hexameters,
which has been splendidly illustrated by Kaulbach.

See J. GRIMM, "Die Sage von Reinhart Vos," 1834.

Allacci. See ALLATIUS.

Allainval, S laN val , (LEONOR JEAN CHRISTINE
Soulas soo las ) a French dramatic poet, born at Char-
tres about 1700; died in 1753. Although he assumed
the title of abbe, he never entered holy orders. Among
his best works is " L ficole dcs Bourgeois," (1728,) a
comedy which is praised by La Harpe.

Allais, 3 Ii , (DKNYS Vairasse va rtss ,) a French
writer of the seventeenth century, born in Languedoc,
was known as the author of a political romance called
the " History of the Sevarambians," (" Histoire dcs
Sevarambes, 1677.)

Al lam, (ANDREW,) a learned English antiquary, born
near Oxford in 1655. He entered holy orders in 1680.
He assisted Wood in the "Athena: Oxonienses," and
began a "History of English Cathedrals," the comple
tion of which was prevented by his death in 1685.

Allamand, i lf mSN , (JEAN NICOLAS SEKASTIEN,)
a philosopher and naturalist, born at Lausanne, in Swit
zerland, in 1713. In 1749 he became professor of phi

losophy, and afterwards of natural history, in the Uni
versity of Leyden, both of which chairs he held with
credit till his death in 1787. He was the first to explain
the phenomena of the Leyden jar, and rendered an im
portant service to the public by the publication of the
Historical Dictionary of his friend Prosper Marchand,
( : 75^-9,) which the latter left in manuscript. The writ
ing was so minute that he was obliged to use a powerful
microscope to decipher it.

Allan, al lan, (DAVID,) a Scottish historical painter,
sometimes called "the Scotch Hogarth," was born at
Alloa in 1744. He went to Rome in 1764, and gained
there a gold medal for his picture of a Corinthian maiden
drawing her lover s profile on the wall by the shadow,
which is esteemed his master-piece. He settled in Edin
burgh about 1780, and increased his reputation by illus
trations of Allan Ramsay s "Gentle Shepherd." He
owes the name of the Scotch Hogarth to his humorous
designs of the Roman Carnival. Died in 1 796.

See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
CUNNINGHAM, " Lives oi Painters, Sculptors," etc.

Allan, al lan, (GEORGE,) an English attorney and
antiquary, who resided at Darlington, was a zealous
student of national antiquities. He contributed to
Hutchinson s " History and Antiquities of Durham,"
and published, besides other works, a "Life of Bishop
Trevor," (1776.) Died in 1800.

See NICHOLS, " Literary Anecdotes," etc.

Allan, (ROIJERT,) a Scottish lyric poet, born at Kil-
barchan in 1774, was a weaver. He produced a volume
of poems in 1836. Having emigrated to the United
States, he died at New York in 1841.

Allan, (THOMAS.) See ALLEN.

Allan, (THOMAS,) F.R.S., a Scottish mineralogist,
born in Edinburgh in 1777. He formed a collection of
about seven thousand specimens of minerals, said to be
the finest collection in Scotland. His knowledge of
mineralogy was extensive and accurate. He wrote the
article Diamond for the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and
a work on Mineralogical Nomenclature. Died in 1833.

Allan, (Sir WILLIAM,) an eminent British historical
painter, born in Edinburgh in 1782. He studied in the
Royal Academy of London, worked some years in Saint
Petersburg, visited Circassia and Turkey, and returned
to Scotland in 1814. His large picture of the " Circassian
Captives" was purchased for 1000 guineas by Sir Walter
Scott and ninety-nine other subscribers, lie afterwards
painted subjects of Scottish history, among which are
the "Parting of Charles Stuart and Flora Macdonald,"
and "The Murder of Regent Murray." He was elected
academician of the Royal Academy, London, in 1835,
and succeeded Wilkie in 1840 as her Majesty s limner
for Scotland. From 1838 until his death he was presi
dent of the Scottish Royal Academy. Among his chief
works are two pictures of the "Battle of Waterloo."
Died in 1850.

See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
vol. v. ; " Encyclopedia Britannica."

Allard, ft laV, (Gui,) a French writer, noted for his
works on the history and genealogy of Dauphine. Born
at Grenoble about 1645; died i 1 1715-

Allard, (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French general, born in
Var in 1785. He left France after the restoration of
1815, and went to Hindostan. He entered the service
of Runjeet Singh at Lahore, organized his army after
the French system, and became general-in-chief. Died
n India in 1839.

Allarde, d , da la"Rd , (PIERRE GILKERT Leroi leh-
Rwa ,) BARON, a French political economist, born at
Montlufon in 1749; died in 1809.

Allart, S laV, (MARY GAY,) a novelist, born at Lyons,
n France, in 1750. She lived a long time in Paris, and
wrote a successful novel called "Albcrtine de Saint-
Albe," (1818.) She also made an elegant French trans-
ation of the "Family Secrets" of Miss Pratt. Died in
Paris in 1821.

Allatius, al-la she^us, (LEO,) [It. LEONE AI.LACCI,
i-o na al-lat chec,] an eminent scholar and physician,
Horn at Chios (Scio) in 1586, embraced the Catholic
religion, taught Greek in a college of Rome, and was

as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in tins.

Explanations, p. 23.)

ALLE

ALLEN

appointed librarian of the Vatican by Pope Alexander
VII. lie edited and translated into Latin several old
Greek works, and wrote some original productions.
Died in 1669.

Alle, al ji, (GiROLAMO,) an Italian writer and eccle
siastic, born at Bologna probably about 1580. He was
an admired orator, and author of many works in prose
and verse on religious and moral subjects, (1613-54.)

Al-lec tus, an officer of Carausius, King of Britain.
Having murdered Carausius, in 293, he usurped the
throne. He was defeated and killed by the Roman army
of Constantius Chlorus about 296 A.D.

Allegrain, t /gRaN , (CHRISTOPHE GABRIEL,) a dis
tinguished French sculptor, born in Paris about 1710.
He excelled in nude figures. Died in 1795.

Allegrain, (fixiENNE,) the father of the preceding,
was a skilful landscape-painter, who died in 1736, aged
eighty.

Allegretti, al-la-gRet tee, (ANTONIO,) a Florentine
poet, who lived (mostly at Rome) about the middle of
the sixteenth century.

Allegretti, (CARLO,) an Italian painter, born at Monte
Prandone, lived between 1600 and 1650.

Allegretti, (jACoro,) an Italian physician and as
trologer, born at Forli in the early part of the fourteenth
century, had an extensive reputation as a Latin poet.

Allegri. See CORREGGIO.

Allegri, al-la gRee, (ALESSANDRO,) a satirical poet of
the sixteenth century. He was a native of Florence,
and excelled in burlesque poetry. The purity of his
language was recognized by the Academy Delia Crusca.
Died aoout 1596.

Allegri, (GREGORIO,) an eminent musician and com
poser, born at Rome about 1580, was a singer in the
pontifical chapel. He is said to have been a relative of
the painter Correggio. His most remarkable work is
the "Miserere," which is still performed annually in the
pope s chapel during the holy week. Died in 1652.

See BURNEY S "Musical Tour in Italy."

Allegrini, al-la-gRee nee, (FRANCESCO,) a distin
guished Italian painter, born at Gubbio in 1587. He
worked at Rome and Genoa in oil and fresco. Died in
1663.

Allegrini, (FRANCESCO,) a designer and engraver,
born at Florence in 1729. Died about 1785.

Allein or Alleine, al len, (JOSEPH,) an English non
conformist divine, born at Devizes in 1633, was educated
at Oxford. He became curate to Mr. Newton at Taun-
ton in 1655, and was ejected for nonconformity in 1662.
Continuing to preach frequently, he was committed to
Ilchester jail in 1663, fined one hundred marks, and im
prisoned one year. He again suffered similar persecu
tion in 1665, in consequence of which he died prema
turely in 1668, leaving several religious works, one of
which, "An Alarm to the Unconverted," (1672,) is
highly esteemed and has been often reprinted.

See A. DUFF S " Life and Death of the Rev. J. Alleine ;" AUGUST
RISCHE, " Leben J. Alleins weiland Predigers zu Taunton," Biele
feld, (?) 1850; " Life and Death of J. Alleine," London, 1672.

Alleiu or Alleine, (RICHARD,) an English noncon
formist minister, born about 1610, was rector of Batcombe,
in Somersetshire. He published, besides other works,
a " Vindication of Godliness," (" Vindiciae Pietatis,"
1663,) which was highly esteemed. Died in 1681.

Allemand. See L \LLEMAND.

Allemand, tl mdN , (GEORGES,) a French historical
painter, born at Nancy, lived in Paris about 1650.

Allemand, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French painter, was
a pupil of J. Vernet. He lived at Rome, and painted
some fine landscapes in the Corsini palace in 1750.

Allemand, Sl mSx , (ZACHARIE JACQUES THEODORE,)
a French admiral, born at Port Louis, in Mauritius, in
1762. He commenced his career as a cabin-boy. In
1792 he was made captain, and captured many British
merchant-vessels between 1793 and 1800. He rose
gradually by his activity and skill to the station of vice-
admiral in 1809., He commanded the fleet which Coch-
rane attempted to destroy with fire-ships at the Isle of
Aix in 1809. Died in 1826.

Allemanni, a -la-man nee, (PIETRO,) of Ascoli, an
Italian painter, who flourished between 1470 and 1490.

Allemant. See LALLEMANT and LALAMANT.

Allen, al len, (ALEXANDER,) an English philologist,
a son of John Allen (1771-1839) noticed below, born at
Hackney, near London, in 1814. He was agood classical
scholar, and an excellent teacher. He wrote articles for
the " Penny Cyclopaedia" and for Smith s " Dictionary
of Greek and Roman Biography," and published seve
ral works for the use of students of the Greek and Latin
languages. Died in 1842.

Al len, (DAVID OLIVER,) an American missionary,
born at Barre, Massachusetts, in 1800. He laboured
many years in India, whither he went about 1827, and
published " India, Ancient and Modern," (2d edition,
1858.) Died in 1863.

Al len or Al eii, (EDMOND,) an English theologian,
born in Norfolk. He wrote a number of works. Died

in 1559-

Allen, (EPHRAIM W.,) born about 1780, was for more
than thirty years editor of the "Newburyport Herald."
In his office William Lloyd Garrison learned the art of
printing. (See GARRISON.) Died in 1846.

Allen, (E THAN,) an officer of the Revolutionary
war, born at Litchfield, in Connecticut, about 1742. He
settled, when young, in Vermont, and became the leader
of the famous "Green Mountain Boys." On the loth
of May, 1775, at tn e head of only eighty-three men, he
took the forts Ticonderoga and* Crown Point. In Sep
tember of the same year, while on an expedition to take
Montreal, he fell in with a much larger force of British
troops, and was made prisoner. He remained in cap
tivity above two years and a half, when he was exchanged
for Colonel Campbell, an English officer. After his re
lease he was appointed general of the state militia. He
died suddenly, February 13, 1789. Besides a narrative
of his captivity, and some writings of a political char
acter, he wrote a work entitled " Reason the only Oracle
of Man," in which he advocated pure Deism.

See " Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Heroes of 76," by 1.
W. DE PUY; Life of Ethan Allen, in SPARKS S "American Biogra
phy;" HUGH MOORE, " Memoir of Colonel E. Allen," Plattsburg, 1834.

Allen, (HENRY,) a. religious enthusiast, born at New
port, Rhode Island, in 1748. He was the founder of a
sect in Nova Scotia who taught that Adam and Eve, in
their state of innocence, had a spiritual existence with
out bodies, and that all human beings are emanations
from the same great Spirit, and were present with our
first parents in the Garden of Eden before the fall, and
participated in the original transgression. He published
a collection of hymns, and several religious treatises and
sermons. Died in 1784.

Allen, (JOHN,) an Irish prelate, born at Dublin in
1476, became Archbishop of Dublin in 1528. He was
killed in 1534 by Thomas Fitzgerald, a son of the Earl
of Kildare, during a rebellion.

Allen, (JOHN,) a Puritan divine, born in England in
1596, emigrated to America, and settled as first minister
in Dedham, Massachusetts. Died in 1671.

Allen, (JOHN,) M.D., an English physician, who lived
in the early part of the eighteenth century and wrote a
valuable work in Latin entitled a " Synopsis of Universal
Practical Medicine," (" Synopsis Universal Medicinas
Practicas,") which aims to give in a succinct form the
opinions of the most eminent physicians in all ages re
specting the cause and cure of diseases. He was elected
a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1730. Died in 1741.

See NICHOLS, "Literary Anecdotes."

Allen, (Jonx,) a dissenting layman, born at Truro,
England, in 1771. He was the master of an academy at
Hackney. Besides other writings of a religious charac
ter, he was the author of a valuable and learned work
entitled " Modern Judaism, or a Brief Account of the
Opinions, Rites, and Ceremonies of the Jews," (1816,)
said to be the best work on the subject in the language.
Died in 1839.

Allen, (JOHN,) M.D., a British writer on constitu
tional history, metaphysics, etc., was born at Redford,
near Edinburgh, in 1770. lie studied medicine and
metaphysics at Edinburgh, and " was eminent in that fa
mous school of metaphysics," says Brougham, " for his ex
tensive learning and unrivalled power of subtle reason
ing." In 1 795 he published " Illustrations of Hume s Es-

a.e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;

ALLEN

say concerning Liberty and Necessity." He contributed
many political and historical articles to the " Edinburgh
Review," and published, besides other works, a learned
and luminous "Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the
Royal Prerogative in England," (1830.) His intimacy
with Lord Holland was such, says Lord Brougham, that
"in the latter part of his life [Mr. Allen] shared all his
thoughts, and was never a day apart from him." He
was master of Dulwich College for many years. Died
in 1843.

See BROUGHAM, "Statesmen of the Times of George III.,"
Second Series; SYDNEY SMITH, "Alemoirs. "

Allen, (JOSEPH W.,) an English landscape-painter,
born at Lambeth, Surrey, in 1803. He was reduced in
his youth to the necessity of painting scenes for the
theatre, and became principal scene-painter at the Olym
pic Theatre, the success of which was greatly promoted
by his skill. He acquired considerable reputation as a
painter of pastoral, landscape, and simple, quiet, rural
scenery. The style of his later works was vitiated by
" brilliant effects " obtained at the expense of fidelity to
nature. Died in 1852.

Allen, (Musics,) an American patriot, a brother of the
Rev. Thomas Allen, was born at Northampton in 1748.
He served as chaplain in the army, was taken prisoner
at Savannah, and was drowned in 1779 in an attempt to
escape from a prison-ship.

Allen, (PAUL,) an American poet and journalist, born
at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1775. He was for seve
ral years editor of the "Morning Chronicle," published
at Baltimore, where he died in 1826. His principal
works are a volume of " Original Poems, Serious and
Entertaining," and a large poem in five cantos, entitled
"Noah."

Allen, (RICHARD,) an English Baptist minister of
London, published "Ecclesiastical Biography, ("Bio-
graphia Ecclesiastica," 2 vols., 1690.) Died in London
in 1717.

Allen, (SAMUKI.,) a London merchant, who came to
New England about 1690, and was subsequently Gov
ernor of New Hampshire. Died in 1705.

Allen, (SOLOMON,) an American divine and patriot,
brother of the Rev. Thomas Allen, was born in North
ampton, Massachusetts, in 1751. He rose to the rank
of major in the war of the Revolution. While in the
army, he was ordered by Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson to
carry from Andre to Arnold the letter which informed
the latter of Andre s capture and enabled Arnold to
make his escape. Died in 1821.

Allen, (STEPHEN,) a distinguished citizen of New
York, born in that city in July, 1767. He was elected
mayor of New York in 1821. While commissioner for
visiting prisons, he proposed the erection of a State
prison at Sing Sing. He was one of the principal
originators of the project for supplying New York with
water from Croton River, and was chairman of the Board.
He perished in the steamer Henry Clay, which was
burned in July, 1852.

See HUNT S " Lives of American Merchants," vol. ii.

Allen, (STEPHEN M.,) an American merchant and
banker, born at Burton, New Hampshire, in 1819. He
distinguished himself by his liberal donations to various
literary institutions.

See LIVINGSTON S "Portraits of Eminent Americans," New York,
1854.

Allen, Alleyn, or Allan, pronounced alike al lcn,
(THOMAS,) an English mathematician of high reputation,
born at Uttoxetcr in 1542. He refused a bishopric from
the Earl of Leicester, with whom he was intimate, and
lived much in the family of the Earl of Northumber
land. 1 le was a great collector of manuscripts, historical
and antiquarian. Among his few publications is a copy
(made with his own hand) of Ptolemy s work on As
trology, ("De Astrorum Judiciis,") to which he added
some explanatory notes. Died in 1632.

See WOOD, "Athena: Oxonienses. "

Allen, (THOMAS,) an English divine, born in 1572 or
1573, was a Ecllow of Merton College. Died in 1636.

Allen, (Sir THOMAS,) an English naval commander,
born in Suffolk. lie was appointed in 1664 commodore
and Commander-in-chief of the fleet sent to punish the

Algerine pirates, and in the same year he gained a vic
tory over the Dutch near Gibraltar. He became a rear-
admiral in 1665, and was vice-admiral of the fleet which
under the Duke of Albcmarle defeated the Dutch near
the southeast coast of England in 1666. Died about
1680.

See CHARNOCK, " Biographia Navalis."

Allen or Allein, (THOMAS,) an English clergyman,
born at Oxford in 1682, became rector of Kettering in
1715. Among his works is "The Practice of a Holy
Life," (1716.) Died in 1755.

Allen, (Rev. THOMAS,) an American divine, born at
Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1743, was the first min
ister of Pittsfield. .He graduated at Harvard in 1762,
and was ordained at Pittsfield in 1764. In the Revolu
tionary war he warmly supported the popular cause,
and served as chaplain at White Plains, Ticonderogaj
etc. Four of his brothers were soldiers in the army.
He was the author of several published sermons, letters,
etc. Died in 1810. He was the father of William
Allen, president of Bowdoin College.

Allen, (THOMAS,) an English topographical writer
and engraver, born about 1803. He published, among
other works illustrated by his own hand, " The History
and Antiquities of London, Westminster, and Parts ad
jacent," (4 vols., 1827-8.) Died in 1833.

See " Gentleman s Magazine," July, 1833.

Allen, Alan, or Alleyn, (WILLIAM,) CARDINAL, born
in Lancashire in 1532, took the degree of D.D. in the
University of Douay in 1571, and was made cardinal by
Pope Sixtus V. in 1587, in order that he might superin
tend the Catholic interests in England after Philip II.
of Spain should have conquered that country. He left
a number of works in defence of the Catholic Church.
Died in Rome in 1594.

See FITZHERBERT, "Epitome Vita; Cardinalis Alani," 1608; a
" Life of Allen " in the folio Brussels edition of Dodd s "Chinch
History;" WOOD, "Athena; Oxonienses."

Allen, (WILLIAM,) a chief justice of Pennsylvania, who
assisted Dr. Franklin in establishing the College of
Philadelphia ; but in the Revolution he took sides with
the royalists. Died in 1780. His son, Andrew Allen,
also became chief justice of Pennsylvania, and, like his
father, sided in the Revolution with the British.

Allen, (WILLIAM,) an English chemist and philan
thropist, born in London in August, 1770, was a member
of the Society of Friends. He became a pupil and as
sistant of Joseph Gurney Bevan, chemist, of Plough
Court, and acquired distinction as a pharmaceutical
chemist. In 1802 he was appointed a lecturer on chem
istry at Guy s Hospital, and in 1804 gave a course of
lectures on natural philosophy at the Royal Institution,
at the request of his friend, H. Davy. He was elected
a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1807, and was associated
with W. II. Pepys in researches on respiration and car
bonic acid. (See PEPYS.) William Allen was an active
promoter of various benevolent and reformatory en
terprises, and devoted much time to the cause of the
education of the poor. He began to preach in the meet
ings of his Society in 1818, and accompanied Stephen
Grellct, a noted minister of the Society of Friends, in a
religious visit to the continent, from which they returned
in 1820, after they had traversed Russia from north to
south and visited various cities in Turkey and Italy.

In 1822 he went to Vienna to see Alexander, Emperor
of Russia, with whom he had a long and satisfactory
interview in relation to schools, the slave-trade, and the
Greeks. In 1825 he founded two manual-labour schools,
one for boys and one for girls, at Lindfield, Sussex.
He visited Germany, France, and Spain on religious
and philanthropic missions in 1832 and 1833. H C CO11
tributed several papers on chemistry to the Philosoph
ical Transactions. Died at Lindfield in 1843.

See "Life of William Allen, with Selections from his Correspond
ence," 2 Vols., 1847.

Allen, (WILLIAM,) D.D., an American biographer,
born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 1784. He graduated
at Harvard College in 1802. and was president of Bow
doin College from 1820 to 1839. He succeeded Dr.
Channing as regent in Harvard College. In 1809 he
published "The American Biographical Dictionary," (3d

as /; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z ; th as in this. (23T" See Explanations, p. 23.)

ALLEN

ALLIONI

edition, enlarged, 1857.) Among his works are "Wun-
nissoo," a poem, (1856;) and "Psalms and Hymns, with
many Original Hymns," (1835.) Died in July, 1868.

Allen, (WILLIAM HENRY,) an American naval officer,
born -it Providence, Rhode Island, in 1784. He dis
tinguished himself as lieutenant under Captain Decatur
in the battle which resulted in the capture of the Mace
donian, October 25, 1812. Having been raised to the
rank of captain, he sailed in the Argus, and took many
prizes. In August, 1813, he was killed in a fight between
the Argus and the Pelican, and his vessel was captured.

Allen, (WILLIAM HOWARD,) an American naval
officer, born at Hudson, New York, in ,1792. He took
command of the Argus when Captain William Henry
Allen was disabled by a mortal wound in August, 1813.
He was killed in a fight with pirates near Matanzas in
November, 1822.

Allende, al-yen da, (J.,) a Mexican officer, who in
1810 joined Hidalgo in the revolt against Spain and
rendered efficient service to the cause. He was cap
tured and shot in July, 1811.

Allent, t lo.N 1 , (PIERRE ALEXANDRE JOSEPH,) a French
general, born at Saint Oiner in 1772. After the resto
ration he became chief of the staff of the national guard,
and counsellor of state. He wrote a " History of the
Imperial Corps of Engineers, and of the Sieges it has
directed," (1805,) and a few other works. Died in 1837.

Alleon-du-Iiac, t la o.V dii Itk, QEAN Louis,) a
French naturalist, born ajf Saint Etienne in 1723, was
postmaster at that place. He published "Memoirs on the
Natural History of Lyonn/)is, Forez, and Beaujolois," (2
vols., 1765,) and "Me lan^fes of Natural History," (2 vols.,
1762,) both works of merit. He died, it is supposed,
about 1770.

Allerstein, Allerstain, al ler-stm , or Hallerstein,
a German Jesuit, born about 1700, went as a missionary
to China. He stated the population of China in 1760 at
196,837,977. Died at Pekin about 1777.

Allestree or Allestry, anls tre, (RICHARD,) an emi
nent English divine, born in Shropshire in 1619. He
served in the royalist army in the civil war, and at the
restoration became one of the chaplains of Charles II.
In 1663 he was appointed regius professor of divinity at
Oxford. His lectures, which were continued about
twenty years, are commended by Bishop Fell. A volume
of his sermons was published in 1669 and 1684. Died
in 1681.

See WOOD, "Athenas Oxonienses."

Allestry, auls tre, (JACOB,) an English poet, born
about 1653 ; died in 1686.

Alletz.S lis , (PIERRE EDOUARD,) a French litterateur,
born in Paris in 1798. He wrote "Walpole," a dra
matic poem, (1825,) an "Essay on Man, or the Accord
ance of Philosophy with Religion," (2 vols., 1835,) and
"Sketches of Moral Suffering," ("Esquisses de la Souf-
france morale," 2 vols., 1836,) which is his principal
work. He was consul at Barcelona when he died in 1850.

Alletz, (PoNS-AuousTiN piN zo giis taN ,) a French
litterateur, born at Montpellicr in 1703. He worked for
the booksellers of Paris, and compiled a number of suc
cessful works, some of which were popular school-books.
Among his works are a "History of the Popes," (1776;)
"L Agronome," a treatise on farming, (1760;) an "Epi
tome of Grecian History," (1764;) and a Synopsis of the
Evidences of Christianity, called "Catechism for Adults,"
(" Catechisme de Page mur.") Died at Paris in 1785.

See QUERARD, "La France Litte raire."

Alley, al le, (Rev. JEROME,) a theologian, born proba
bly in Ireland in 1760, was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin. He became rector of Beaulieu and Drumcarr.
Among his works is "Vindiciae Christiana?, or a Com
parative Estimate of the Genius and Temper of the
Greek, the Roman, the Hindu, the Mahometan, and the
Christian Religions," (1826.)

Alley or Alleigh, al le, (WILLIAM,) an English
bishop, born at Great Wycombe about 1512. He became
a zealous Protestant minister, and in the reign of Mary
resigned his cure. On the accession of Elizabeth he was
appointed reader of the divinity lecture in Saint Paul s,
London. He was consecrated Bishop of Exeter in 1560.

He translated the Pentateuch for the Bishops Bible, and
left several religious works. Died in 1571.

Alleyii or Allen, al len, (EDWARD,) a celebrated
English actor, born in London in 1566, was a friend or
companion of Shakspeare. He was one of the two
owners and managers of the Fortune Theatre, London,
and amassed a large fortune, which he spent in acts of
munificence. He founded, for the benefit of the poor,
Dulwich College, finished about 1618, and by his last
will endowed twenty almshouses. The college w.is
founded for the support of one master, (whose family
name must always be the same as that of the founder,)
one warden, four fellows, six poor men, six poor women,
and for the education and support of twelve boys. Died
in 1626.

See J. P. COLLIER, " Memoirs of Edward Alleyn," etc.

Al li-boiid, (JOHN,) an English divine, born in Buck
inghamshire, was rector of Brad well. He wrote a
satirical poem, " Rustic Description of the Oxford Acad
emy lately reformed," (" Rustica Academias Oxoniensis
nuper reformats; Descriptio," 1648,) and is called by
Anthony Wood an excellent Latin poet. Died in 1658.

Al li-bone, (SAMUEL AUSTIN,) an American writer,
born in Philadelphia in 1816. He is the author of an
excellent work entitled " A Critical Dictionary of Eng
lish Literature and British and American Authors,"
of which the first volume (royal 8vo, pp. 1005) was is
sued in 1858; the second is said to be now (1868) in
press. The plan, which is as happy as it is novel, is to
give a succinct biography of each author, accompanied
by copious extracts from the opinions of the most cele
brated critics, or some periodical of acknowledged repu
tation, by means of which the reader is at once enabled
to determine the literary standing of the author con
cerning whom he may desire information ; and this plan
has been so fully and thoroughly carried out as to leave
little or nothing to be desired.

Allier, S le-a , (AcniLLE,) a French artist and anti
quary, born nT the Bourbonnais in 1807 or 1808. He
described some antiquities of his native province in
"Esquisses Bourbonnaises," (1832,) and began, in 1833,
to issue, in numbers, " L Ancien Bourbonnais," a splen
did work on the history and antiquities of the Bourbon
nais, with plates designed by himself. He died in 1836,
leaving it unfinished.

Allier, (ANTOINE,) a French sculptor, born at Em-
brun in 1793. Among his works are statues of Philopce-
men and Eloquence, and busts of Sully and Arago.

Allier, (Louis,) called also Hauteroche, hoVrosh ,
a French antiquary and numismatist, born at Lyons in
1766. He visited the Troad and Asia Minor, collected
many Greek medals, and wrote several antiquarian
treatises ; died in 1827.

Allies, al lez, (JABEZ,) an English antiquary, born in
Worcestershire in 1787; died in 1856.

Al ling-ham, (JoiiN TILL,) a popular English dra
matic writer, flourished about the end of the eighteenth
century. He was a native of London, and belonged to
the legal profession. He wrote comedies and farces,
among which are "The Weathercock," and "Fortune s
Frolic," (1799.)

Allingham, (WILLIAM,) a poet, born at Ballyshannon,
Ireland, about 1828. He published a volume of poems
in 1850, and "Day and Night Songs" in 1854. His
poem entitled "Laurence Bloomfield in Ireland" (in 12
chapters, 1864) was very favourably received. He has
received an appointment in the Customs in England, and
a literary pension was granted him in 1864.

Allied, al le-o, (MATTEO,) an Italian sculptor, worked
at Milan about 1750. His brother Tommaso was also
a sculptor at Milan.

Allioli, al-le-o lee, (JOSEPH FRANZ,) a German theo
logian, born at Sulzbach in 1793. He became professor
of theology at Munich in 1826, and provost of the cathe
dral of Augsburg about 1838. He made a translation
of the Bible from the Vulgate into German, (1830, 6th
edition, 1839-45,) which was approved by the pope, and
wrote several religious works.

Allioni, al-le-o nee, (CARLO,) an Italian physician
and eminent botanist, born at Turin in 1725. He was
professor of botany in the University of Turin, and Fel-

a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mt; not; good; moon;

ALLIQT

ALMAGRO

low of the Royal Societies of London, Madrid, and Gb t-
tingen. Like his friend Haller, he was opposed to the
artificial system of Linnaeus. His principal work is a
"Flora of Piedmont," ("Flora Pedemontana, etc.," 3
vols., 1785,) by which he acquired a durable reputation.
He wrote an able medical work, entitled " Synopsis
of the Present Condition of Diseases," ("Conspectus
PiTCsentaneae Morborum Conditionis," 1793.) Died in
1804.

See M. F. BUNIVA, " Reflexions sur toutes les ouvrages iniblies et

ip]

Alliot, t leV, (PIERRE,) a French physician of the
seventeenth century, born at Bar-le-Duc, had the repu
tation of great skill in the treatment of cancerous and
other malignant ulcers.

Allison. See ALISON.

Al li-son, (FRANCIS,) a Presbyterian minister, born in
Ireland in 1705. He became a professor and vice-pro
vost of the Philadelphia College about 1755. Died in 1777.

Allix, i leks , (JACQUES ALEXANDRIA FRANCOIS,) a
French general, born at Percy (Manche) in 1776, served
as colonel at Marengo, 1800. Died in 1836.

Allix, (PIERRE,) a French Protestant theologian, born
at Alcncon in 1641, was eminent as a scholar and preacher.
He was deeply versed in Hebrew and classical literature.
The sermons he preached at Charenton in opposition to
Bossuet were much admired. On the revocation of the
edict of Nantes in 1685 he took refuge in England,
learned the English language, and was appointed treas
urer of the- cathedral church of Salisbury, (1690.) He
was greatly distinguished as a controversial writer. His
principal work, " Reflexions on the Books of the Holy
Scripture," (1688,) is highly esteemed, and has been often
reprinted. Died in 1717.

See WOOD, "Fasti Oxonienses."

Allix. See ALIX.

Alloisi. See GALANINO.

Allori, al-k/ree, [It. pron. al-16 ree,] (ALKSSANDRO,)
an eminent Italian painter, born at Florence in 1535, was
a pupil of Angelo Bronzino, his uncle, and an imitator of
Michael Angelo. He was skilful in drawing, and in the
science of anatomy, of which he made an excessive dis
play in his works. He adorned the churches and palaces
of Florence with paintings in fresco and oil. His mas
ter-pieces are "The Last Judgment," " Christ Disputing
with the Doctors," and "The Sacrifice of Abraham."
Died in 1607.

See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."

Allori, (ANGELO.) See BRONZING, (ANGELO.)

Allori, (CRISTOFANO,) a celebrated painter, a son of
Alessandro, noticed above, was born at Florence in 1577.
He studied with Gregorio Pagani, and adopted a style
very different from that of his father. He excelled in
richness and delicacy of colouring, and was a superior
portrait-painter. His works are scarce, and exquisitely
finished. Among his master-pieces are a Magdalen,
and the "Miracle of San Giuliano," in the Pitti gallery.
Died about 1620.

See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy."

Al lot, (ROBERT,) is believed to have been the com
piler of a valuable collection of early poetry, entitled
"England s Parnassus," (London, 1600,) in the compila
tion of which he showed good taste and judgment.

Allou, t loo , (CHARLES NICOLAS,) a French arch
aeologist, born in Paris in 1787. He wrote an "Essay
on the Universality of the French Language," (1828.)

Allouette, de 1 , deh 13 loo et , |Lat. ALAUDA NUS,]
(FRANCOIS,) a French antiquary, born at Vertus about
1 530, was president of the court of Sedan, and master
of requests. He wrote many works on genealogy, civil
law, the history of the Gauls, etc. Died about 1608.

Allston, auKston, (JOSEPH,) an American, born in
1778, was Governor of South Carolina in 1812. His
wife was Theodosia, the only daughter of Aaron Burr.
Died in 1816.

Allston, (Roi)ERT FRANCIS WITHERS,) an American
planter, born in South Carolina in iSoi. He was elected
Governor of his native State in 1856. He distinguished

himself as an agriculturist, and made improvements IP
the cultivation of rice.

Allston, (WASHINGTON,) one of the most eminent,
of American artists, born at Waccamaw, in South Caro
lina, November 5, 1779. Owing to his delicate health
in early childhood, he was sent to Newport, Rhode Is
land, where he remained at school ten years. He en
tered Harvard College in 1796, and took the degree of
A.B. in 1800. He returned soon after to Charleston,
and in 1801 embarked for England, accompanied by
Malbone, the painter, whom he had previously known
at Newport, and with whom he formed a warm and
lasting friendship. The following year he exhibited in
London several pictures, one of which, a "French Sol
dier telling a Story," attracted very favourable notice.
He visited Paris in 1804, and subsequently repaired to
Italy, where he remained four years. While at Rome
he formed an intimacy with Coleridge, of whose extra
ordinary genius he speaks in enthusiastic terms. In
1809 he returned to America, and soon after married a
sister of William E. Channing, the eminent Unitarian
divine. He again sailed for England in 1811, and es
tablished himself in London, where he had resided but
a short time when he met with a severe affliction in the
death of his wife. In 1818 he was elected associate of
the Royal Academy. The same year, in consequence
of failing health, he returned to his home in America.
He had previously finished his great historical painting
of " The Dead Man revived by Elisha s Bones," for
which he obtained the first prize at the British Institu
tion. Among Mr. Allston s most celebrated pictures
arc "Jacob s Dream;" "Elijah in the Desert;" "The
Angel Uriel in the Sun;" and "Spalatro s Vision of the
Bloody Hand." He was engaged on a large painting of
"Belshazz.ar s Feast," when he died, July 9, 1843. In
addition to his genius as a painter, Allston possessed
poetic talent of a high order. He was the author of
" The Sylphs of the Seasons, and other Poems," pub
lished in 1813.

During his residence at Rome, Allston became ac
quainted with Washington Irving, who thus describes
him: "There was something to me inexpressibly en
gaging in the appearance and manners of Allston. I do
not think I have ever been more completely captivated
on a first acquaintance. He was of a light, graceful
form, with large blue eyes, and black silken hair waving
and curling round a pale, expressive countenance. Every
thing about him bespoke the man of intellect and refine
ment. His conversation was copious, animated, and
highly graphic, warmed by a genial sensibility and be
nevolence, and enlivened at times by a chaste and gentle
humour. . . . His memory I hold in reverence and
affection, as one of the purest, noblest, and most intel
lectual beings that ever honoured me with his friend
ship."

See DuNi.Ai , " Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in Amer
ica," vol. i.; TUCKERMAN, " P.ook of the Artists;" also, article by
DR. O. W. HOLMES, in " North American Review," vol. 1. p. 358.

Allut, t lu , ( ANTOINE,) born at Montpellier, in France,
in 1743, was educated at Paris, and became, while very
young, a contributor to the "Encyclopedic." He was
executed by the Jacobins in 1794.

Ally, (Ali.) "See ALEE.

Almada, de, da al-ma na, (Ai/VARO VAS,) a famous
Portuguese warrior, was created Count of Avranches by
Charles VI. of France. He was a loyal adherent of
Dom Pedro, regent of Portugal, and was killed in battle
in 1449.

Almagro, de, da al-ma gRo, (DiEGO,) a bold and
enterprising Spanish officer, who was the principal asso
ciate of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. He was a found
ling, born about 1464, and went to America to seek his
fortune. About 1525, Pizarro, Almagro, and Luque
agreed to co-operate in an effort to conquer Peru. This
object they effected with a very small force about 1533.
(See PIZARUO, FRANCISCO.) In 1534 Almagro was ap
pointed adelantado (governor) of the region which lies
southward from Peru. He extended the conquests of
the Spanish power into Chili in 1535, after which he cap
tured Cuzco from the army of Pizarro, who had become
his perfidious enemy. In a decisive battle, fought near

planter, uurn in r&gt;ouin v^aiuniui in loui. nc wa.a ciccicu iui^.u ^&gt;u^^.v; m^ m*n^ \j&gt;

Governor of his native State in 1856. He distinguished his perfidious enemy. In a decisive battle, fought near

e as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, /rilled; s as s; th as in this. (^^""See Explanations, p. 25.)

ALMAGRO

100

ALM1C1

Cuzco in 1538, Almagro was defeated and taken pris
oner by Pizarro, who caused him to be put to death.

See ROBERTSON, "History of America;" PRESCOTT, "Conquest
of Peru," vol. i.; HERRKRA, "Historia."

Almagro, de, (DIEGO,) a son of the preceding, born
about 1520, assisted to revenge his father s death by the
assassination of Pizarro. After the defeat of his asso
ciates by De Castro, he was betrayed and put to death
in 1542.

Al-Mahdee or Al-Mahdi, (founder of the sect of
Almohades.) See ABOO-ABDlLLAH-MoHAMMED.

Almahdee or Almahdi, al-mah dce , or, more fully,
Almahdi Billah, (i.e. "the director by the grace of
God,") the third caliph of the house of Abbas, succeeded
to the throne in 776 A.D. Died in 785.

Almaiii, fl maN , (JACQUES,) a French theological
writer, who was a native of Sens. Died in 1515-

Al-Makhzoomee or Al-Makhzfimi, nl-maK-zoo -
mee, a distinguished historian and poet of Mohammedan
Spain, born in 1190. He passed the latter part of his
life at the court of the Sultan of Tunis. Died in 1256.
Al-Makkari. See MAKKAREE.
Al-Makin. See ELMACIN.
Al-Makreezee or -Makrizi. See MAKREEZEE.
Al-Malek or Al-Melik. See MALIK.
Al-Mamooii. See MAMOON.

Al-Mansoor, Al-Mansflr, Al-Mansour, or Al-
Mangour, al-man soor , written also Almanzor and
Almansor, ("the Victorious,") the surname by which
Aboo-Amir (a boo a mjr) -Mohammed, the minister
of Hisham II., Sultan of Cordova, is generally known.
Born near Algeziras in 939 A.D., he began his career as
a bookseller and scribe ; but he soon found means to
recommend himself to the notice of the sultan, and at
length, by his talents and address, succeeded in possess
ing himself of all the real power in the state, Hisham
retaining only the name of sovereign. He exercised the
power thus obtained with an ability and success which
have scarcely a parallel in the history of Mohammedan
Spain. He not only overran the greater part of the
Peninsula, but also extended his sway over a considerable
portion of Western Africa. His internal administration
is said to have been no less distinguished for wisdom and
justice, than was his military career for brilliant success.
Died in 1002.

See AL-MAKKAR.I, "History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
Spain," translated by GAYANGOS, 2 vols. 410, London, 1840-43 ; CONDE,
Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana ;" MARIANA,
" Historia general de Espana."

Al-Mansoor, (Aboo-Jaafar,) Caliph of Bagdad.
See MANSOOR.

Almanzor. See AL-MANSOOR.

Almeida, al-maVcla, (MANGEL,) a Portuguese Jesuit,
born at Viseu in 1^580. He passed ten years in Abys
sinia, (1622-32,) and collected materials for a "History
of Ethiopia," which was published byB. Tellez in 1660;
it is said to be a work of decided merit. Died at Goa
in 1646.

Almeida, de, da al-ma^e-da, (ANTONIO,) a Portu
guese surgeon, born in Beira about 1760. He published
"Surgical Works," ("Obras Cirurgicas," 4 vols., 1814.)
Died in 1822.

Almeida, de, (BRITES, bRee tes,) a heroine who has
been called " the Portuguese Joan of Arc," was born
about the middle of the fourteenth century, and followed
the business of a baker. When her native village (Al-
jubarotta) was attacked by the Spaniards in 1386, she is
said to have killed several soldiers with a baker s shovel,
which was religiously preserved as a memorial by the in
habitants of Aljubarotta through several generations.

See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."

Almeida, de, (Dom FRANCISCO,) the first Portuguese

V iceroy of India, a son of the Count of Abrantes, was

born at Lisbon about the middle of the fifteenth cci&gt;

Having distinguished himself in the Moorish

wars, he was appointed Viceroy of India in 1505, and

the seat ot his government at Cochin. By his

courage and prudence he greatly extended the dominion

Portugal. When Albuquerque arrived in 1508 with
a commission to supersede the viceroy, Almeida refused
atfirst to resign the office, and arrested the admiral

About the end of 1508, Almeida gained a great victory
over the Egyptian rleet near the coast of India. "Soon
after this victory he gave up the command to his rival,
and embarked for Portugal in November, 1509; but
before the end of the voyage he was killed in an af
fray with a band of Caffres, near the Cape of Good
Hope, in 1510. Thus obscurely perished, by the hands
of savages, a man who had humbled the potentates of
India and rendered his country s flag triumphant on the
Eastern seas.

See BARROS, "Decadas da Asia;" FARIA Y SOUZA, "Asia Por-
tugue/.a. "

Almeida, de, (LORENZO,) a son of the preceding,
distinguished for the many noble qualities of his heart,
as well as for bravery and military talents, fell in a sea-
fight with the Egyptians near Choul, in 1508.

See JOAO DE BARROS, " Decada quarta;" FARIA Y SOUZA, "Asia
Portugueza."

Almeida, de, (NICOLAO Tolentino to-len-tee no,)
a Portuguese satirical poet, born at Lisbon in 1745. He
published a volume of poems in 1802. It is stated that
his superiority in satire was such that he had neither
rivals nor imitators. Died in 1811.

Almeida, de, (THEODORO.) See ALMEYDA.

Almeida-Garrett, al-ma^e-dagar-rct r ,(or gjir ret,) (J.
B. LEITAO DE,) a PortuguescT7/#cw//r, and the author of
ametrical romance entitled "Aclozinda," (London, 1828.)
He also wrote a "Historical Sketch of Portuguese Lite
rature."

See LONGFELLOW S "Poets and Poetry of Europe." and an article
"On the Poets of Portugal," in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for
1832, (vol. x.)

Almela, de, da al-ma la, (DIEGO RODRIGUEZ,) a
Spanish historical writer of the fifteenth century, was
born in the city of Murcia.

Almeloveen, van, vSn al meh-lo-van , (THEODORUS
Jansson yans son,) an eminent Dutch physician and
scholar, born at Mydrecht in 1657, was professor of
Greek and of medicine at Harderwyk. He published
good editions of the "Aphorisms" of Hippocrates, and
"Celsus de Medicina," (1687,) and wrote several works,
among which is "Theological and Philological Ame
nities," ("Amoenitates Theologico-Philologicrc," 1694.)
Died in 1712.

Almeloven, al meh-lo ven, (JAN,) a Dutch painter
and engraver, born in Holland about 1620. He left a
number of spirited etchings of landscapes, some of
which are after his own designs.

Almenar, al-ina-naR , (JUAN,) a Spanish physician,
lived about 1500, and wrote "Dc MorboGallico," (1502.)

Almendingeii, von, fon- al men-ding en, (LUDWIG
HARSCIIER,) a jurist, born of German parents in Paris
in 1766. He was a judge or counsellor in the duchy
of Nassau. He wrote several legal treatises, and co
operated with Feuerbach in his " Bibliothek," a periodi
cal devoted to criminal law. Died in 1827.

Aimer, al mer, QOIIANN CHRISTIAN,) a Danish
painter, born at Copenhagen in 1742 ; died in 1792.

Almeras, il ma ras , (Louis,) an able French gene
ral, born at Vienne in 1768. He served on the staff of
Kleber in Egypt, and distinguished himself at Heliopo-
lis. Having obtained the rank of general, he joined the
grand army in 1809, and was wounded at Wagram.
For his conduct at the battle of the Moskwa, in 1812,
he was made lieutenant-general. He was taken prisoner
in the retreat from Russia. He was appointed com
mandant of Bordeaux in 1813. Died in 1823.

Almeyda, (FRANCISCO.) See ALMEIDA.

Almeyda, de, da al-ma/e-da, (FERNANDO,) a Portu
guese sacred poet, born at~Xlberca in 1459.

See LONGFELLOW S " Poets and Poetry of Europe."

Almeyda, de, (FRANCISCO,) a Portuguese theologian,
born at Lisbon in 1701; died after 1750.

Almeyda or Almeida, de, da al-ma^e-da, (TiiEo-
DORO,) a Portuguese priest and writer, borrTat Lisbon in
1722. He promoted the study of philosophy on rational
principles in Portugal, and wrote many wotxs, of which
the most remarkable is "Philosophical Recreation,"
("Recreacao Filosofica," 5 vols., 1751.) Died in 1804.

Almici, al-mee chcc, (CAMILLO,) a learned Italian
priest and writer, born at Brescia in 1714 ; died in 1779.

a, e, i, o, u, y, long;, a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, il, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsctire; far, fail, fat; met; not; good; moo:

ALMQDQVAR

101

ALOMPRA

AL-

Almodovar, al-mo-do vau, (Don ILDEFONSO Bias
de Ribera cle as di re-Ba ra,) COUNT OF, a Spanish
diplomatist and writer of considerable merit. He was
successively ambassador to Russia and England, and
returned to Spain in 1779. His chief work is a free
translation of Raynal s " History of the East and West
Indies," (1784-90,) in which he made such changes as
enabled it to pass the Spanish censorship. Died in
1794.

See COXE, "Memoirs of the Kings of Spain."

Almohades, al mo-hadz ; singular, Almohade, aK-
mo-had, [Fr. pron. f 1 mo id ; Ger. ALMOHADKN,
mo-ha den ; Lat. ALMO HAD/E from the Arabic
MOWAHIDOON, (ALMUWAHioCN,) signifying "worship
pers of ONE God,"] the name of a celebrated Moham
medan dynasty which succeeded in Northern Africa and
Spain to the power of the Almoravides. Its founder was
ABOO-ABDILLAH-MOHAMMED, (which see,) a religious
reformer, who took the surname of AL-MAHDEE, (AL-
MAHBI,) " the director." His followers called themselves
Al-Mowahidoon, that is, "worshippers of the ONE true
God" as revealed by Mohammed, and accused the Almo
ravides of having departed from the original purity of
the Moslem faith and of having relapsed into a condi
tion little better than polytheism or paganism. The power
of the Almohades lasted from about 1 145 until 1269, when
it was subverted by the Benee Mcreen, (Beni Merin.)
The Almohade dynasty is sometimes called that of
Abd-el-Moomen, (or Abd-ul-Mumen,) because he was
the first of the Al-Mowahidoon who took the name of
sultan.

See AL-MAKKARI S " Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain," trans

lated by GAYANGOS, London,
of the Berbers."

1840-43; IUN-KHALDOON, "History

Almon, al mon, (JOHN,) an English political writer,
born at Liverpool about 1738, was a political friend of
John Wilkcs. He became a prominent publisher of
pamphlets for the opposition party about 1763. Some
of these pamphlets were of his own composition. He
also published "Anecdotes of Lord Chatham, with his
Speeches from 1736 to 1778," (1792,) and " Biographical,
Literary, and Political Anecdotes," (3 vols., 1797.) Died
in 1805.

See "Gentleman s Magazine," December, 1805.

Almonacid, de, di al-mo-na-theo , (SEBASTIAN,) a
Spanish sculptor, who flourished in the beginning of the
sixteenth century.

Almonde, van, vtn al-mon deh, (PniLiPPUS,) writ
ten also Allemonda, a Dutch admiral, born at Briel in
1646. He distinguished himself as captain in the battle
against the English in Solcbay, 1672. On the death of
DC Ruyter, 1676, he obtained command of the fleet, and
in the following year shared in Tromp s victory over the
Swedes. He accompanied William of Orange in his
expedition to England in 1688, and commanded the
Dutch fleet at La liogue, (1692,) where the French were
signally defeated. Almonde and Sir George Rooke
commanded the allies at the destruction of a Spanish
fleet in the Bay of Vigo in 1702. Died in 1711.

Sec VAN DKR A/\, " Biogrnphisch Woordenbock der Nederlanden."

Almonte, al-mon ti, (JUAN N.,) a Mexican general,
born about the beginning of the nineteenth century,
served under Santa Anna in Texas in 1836, and was
sent as ambassador to the United States soon after 1840.
He took part in the battles of Buena Vista and Cerro
Gordo in 1847. In 1862 he was appointed dictator by a
party of Mexicans opposed to Juarez, but he was de
prived of power by the French general Forey in Sep
tember of that year. Died in 1869.

Al-Moohtadee or Al-Muhtadi Billah, al-mooh -
ta-dcc bil lah, a caliph of the house of Abbas. Born in
838 A.D., he ascended the throne in 869, and was killed,
after a reign of eleven months, by the rebellious Turkish
soldiers.

Al-Mooktadee or Al-Muktadi, al-mook ta-dee ,
a caliph of the house of Abbas, began to reign at Bagdad
in 1075, and died in 1094.

Al-JVTooktader, (-Muktader,) al-mook ta-der, or
Almdbk tader Bil lah, a caliph of the house of
Abbas, ascended the throne in 908, and, after a troubled

and inglorious reign, was killed in battle by his rebel
lious subjects in 931 A.D.

Al-Mooktafee or Al-Muktafi, al-mdok ta-fee , ;,
caliph of the house of Abbas, who began to reign in
902 A. n., at the age of twenty years, and died in 908.

Al-Mooktafee or Al-Muktafi was also the name
of another Abbasside caliph, who ascended the throne ii.
1136. Died in 1160.

Al-Moontaser, Al-Muntaser, or Al-Muntasir.
al-moon tas-ser, the eleventh caliph of the line of Abbas,

succeeded to the throne by parricide in 862 A.D., and
died after a reign of six months.

Al-Mootassem. See MOTASSEM.

Al-Mootenabbee or Al-Mutenabbi, ai-moo teh-
nab bec, or El-Motenebbi, el-mo teh-neb bee, one of
the most distinguished of the Arabian poets, born at
Koofah (Kufah) in the early part of the tenth century.
He was killed, while on a journey, by a party of hostile
Arabs, in 965 A.D.
Almoravides, dl-mo ra-vidz; singular, Almoravide,

al-mo ra-vid, [Fr. pron. Srmo rS ved ; Ger. ALMORA-
VIDEN, al-mo-ra-vee den ; Lat. ALMORAV ID/E a Eu
ropean corruption of the Arabic term Almorabitoon, (or
Almorabitun,) in the oblique cases Almorabiteen, (Al-
morabitin,) an Arabic term signifying "those bound" or
" devoted" to the service of God,J the name of a Moslem
dynasty which arose in Northern Africa about the mid
dle of the eleventh century. It was founded by ABDAL-
LAH-IBN-YASEEN, (which see,) a religious leader, one
of whose generals, Yoosuf-Ibn-Tashefeen, conquered a
large part of Spain and established a dynasty which
lasted about one hundred years. The last sultan of this
line, Tashefeen-Ibn-Alee, was deprived of his throne and
life by the victorious Almohades in 1145.

See IBN-KHAI.DOON-, " History of the Berbers," (in manuscript,)
and AL-MAKKARI, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
Spain," translated by GAYANGOS, London, 1840-43.

Almosnino, iil-mos-nee no, (MosES,) a learned Jew
ish rabbi and writer, born at Salonikiin 1523 ; died near
the close of the sixteenth century.

Al-Motassem. See MOTASSEM.

Al-Moteuebbi. See AL-MOOTENABBEE.

Almquist, alm kwist, (KARL JONAS LUDWIG,) a
Swedish poet and novelist of the romantic school, was
born in 1 793. He published several novels, one of which
is entitled "Amorina," a number of elementary works
on history, mathematics, etc., and a collection of poems
entitled "Book of Thorn-Roses," (i.e. "sweet-briers;"
in Swedish, " Tornrosens Bok.") Died in 1844.

SeeFAHLKRAXTZ, "C. J. L. Almquist sasom Forfattarei Allmrinhet

h sasom Theolog i synnerhet skarSkadad," 2 vols., 1845.

Al-Muhtadi. Sec AL-MOOHTADEE.

Al-Muktader. See AL-MOOKTADER.

Al-Muktadi. See AL-MOOKTADEE.

Al-Muktafi. See AL-MOOKTAFEE.

Al-Muntaser. See AL-MOONTASER.

Al-Mutassem. See MOTASSEM.

Al-Muteiiabbi. See AL-MOOTENABBEE.

Almy, al me, (WILLIAM,) an American philanthro
pist, member of the Society of Friends, born in 1761.
He amassed a large fortune, which he employed in pro
moting objects of benevolence. Among other things,
he liberally endowed the Friends Boarding-School at
Providence, Rhode Island. Died in 1836.

Alnaiider, al-nan der, (OLAF JOHAN,) a Swedish an
tiquary, born at Norrkjoping, lived about 1510.

Al-Nassir or Al-Nasir, (An-Nasir.) See ABD-ER-
RAHMAN III.

Aloisi or Alloisi, (BALDASSARE.) See GALANINO.

Aloisio, a-lo-ee sc-o, (GIAN-FRANCESCO,) an Italian
poet, born near Naples, was accused of heresy, for which
he was put to death in 1564.

Aloja, a-lo yS, (GiusEi-i-E,) a Neapolitan engraver,
lived about 1750.

Alompra, a-lom pra, the founder of the present dy
nasty of Burmah, was born about 1710. He was the
chief of the town of Monchaboo, when the King of Pegu
conquered Burmah, in 1752. Having raised the standard
&gt;f revolt, in 1753, he defeated the Pegtians in several
Battles, and made himself master of all Burmah. He
took the King of Pegu prisoner in his own capital in

e as k; c as .r; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^=See Explanations, p. 23. )

ALONSO

AL-SAFFAH

1757. Alompra was faithless and cruel, but possessed
superior civil and military talents. Died in 1760.

See DALRYMPLE, "Oriental Repertory;" CRAWFURD, "Journal
of an Embassy to Siam," etc. ; SYMES, "Account of an Embassy to
the Kingdom of Ava in the year 1795."

Alouso or Alonzo, (of Spain.) See ALFONSO.

Alonso de los Rios, a-lon so cli 16s rec 6s, (PEDRO,)
a Spanish sculptor, born at Valladolid in 1650, worked
at Madrid. Died in 1700. His father, Francisco, was
also an able sculptor.

Alonzo. See ALFONSO.

Alopa, d , da-lo pa, (LoRF.NZO,) a learned printer,
born at Venice, published at Florence, about 1475-1500,
accurate editions of several Greek works, in elegant
typography.

AlopEeus, a-lo-pa iis, (DAVID,) brother of Maxim,
noticed below, born at Viborg in 1769, was sent by the
emperor Alexander I. as minister to Sweden in 1809.
After the peace of 1815 he was minister from Russia to
the court of Berlin, where he died in 1831.

Alopaeus, (MAXIM MAXIMOVITCH,) a Russian diplo
matist, born at Viborg, in Finland, in 1748. lie was
appointed by Catherine II., in 1790, minister plenipo
tentiary to the court of Prussia. Died in 1822.

Alos, a/l6s, (JuAN,) a Spanish medical writer, be
came professor of anatomy at Barcelona in 1664.

Aloysius, a-lo-ish e^us, an architect who flourished
at Rome in the time of Theodoric the Great.

Alpago, al-pa go, [Lat. ALPA GUS,] (ANDREA,) an
Italian physician, native of Belluno, lived about the
close of the fifteenth century.

Alp-Arslan, alp-ars-lan , (the "strong lion,") written
also Alp-Arselan, a celebrated Seljook sultan, born
in Toorkistan in 1030, succeeded to the throne in 1063.
In 1071 he defeated and took prisoner Romanus Dioge
nes, the Byzantian emperor, who is said to have com
manded, in this battle, three hundred thousand men.
He treated his imperial captive with great generosity
and kindness. Alp-Arslan was assassinated in 1072.
His person was remarkable for beauty, grace, and
strength, and his character appears to have been almost
without a stain. His minister, Nizam-ul-Mulk, (ne-
zSm-ool-moolk,) shared the glory of his sovereign.
" Under his wise direction," says Sir John Malcolm,
" the territories of Alp-Arslan attained the highest pros
perity. Justice was well administered ; colleges and
mosques were erected in every city ; learning was en
couraged ; the poor were protected ; and the inhabitants
of Persia confessed that the conquest of their country
by the savage Tartars, which they had dreaded as the
worst of evils, had proved the greatest of blessings."

See MALCOLM, " History of Persia," vol. i. chap. viii. ; VON
HAMMER, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs ;" D HERBELOT,
" Bibliotheque Orientals ;" GIBBON, " Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire."

Al-pha nus or Alfani, al-fa nee, (FRANCESCO,) an
Italian medical writer of Salerno, lived between 1550
and 1600.

Alphee. See ALPHEUS.

Alphege. See ELPHF.GE.

Alphen, van, vSn al fen, (DANIEL,) a Dutch jurist,
born in 1713, was professor of law at Leydcn. Died in
1797.

Alphen, van, (HlERONYMUS,) a popular Dutch poet,
born at Gouda in 1746, became procurator-general at
the court of Utrecht, and treasurer-general of the Union.
He published " Poems and Meditations," (1777,) " Dutch
Songs," ("Gezangen," 1779,) and "Short Poems for
Children," (1781,) which are remarkable for simple
grace and beauty. His imaginative poem of " The
Starry Heavens" ("Dc Starrenhemel," 1783) is one of
his finest productions. Died at the Hague in 1803.

See K AM PEN, " Geschiedenis der Letteren en Wetenschappen in
de Nederlanden ;" JORISSEN, " Erinnerung an H. van Alphen," 1804.

Alphen, van, (HIERONYMUS SIMON,) a distin
guished theologian, an ancestor of the preceding, was
born at New Hanau in 1665. He became professor of
theology at Utrecht in 1715, and acquired a high repu
tation as a teacher. He wrote commentaries on the
epistles of Paul (1742) and on other books of Scripture.
Died in 1742.

HlERONYMUS VAN ALPHEN, (1700-58,) son of the pre
ceding, was professor of theology at Utrecht, and grand
father of the poet Van Alphen.

Alphery, al fa-re, (NlCEPHORUS,) a Russian, who
emigrated to England and became a parson of the An
glican Church, lie died at an advanced age in the latter
part of the seventeenth century.

Al-phe us or Al-phei us, [Gr. AA^sof or \A(J&gt;EIO&lt;: ;
Fr. ALPHEE, STfa ,1 a river-god of classic mythology,
was a son of Oceanus. The poets fabled that he loved
the nymph Arethusa, who fled from him to the island
of Ortygia and was metamorphosed into a fountain,
and that Alpheus followed her through the sea and was
thus united to that fountain.

Alpheus, a Greek poet, native of Mitylene, supposed
to have lived in the time of Augustus Caesar. He was
distinguished as a writer of epigrams.

Alpheus, a Greek engraver of gems, lived in the first
century of our era.

Alphonse. See ALFONSO.

Alphoiiso. See ALFONSO.

Alphonso (or Alfonso) Tostado. See ALPHON-

SUS AliULENSIS.

Al-phon sus Ab-ti-len sis, (i.e. "Alphonso of
Avila,") or Alfonso Tostado, al-fon so tos-ta i&gt;o, an
eminent Spanish theologian, born in New Castile about
1400, became Bishop of Avila. Died in 1445, leaving
many works, among which arc "Commentaries on the
Scriptures," (13 vols., 1508.)

Alphonsus a Saucta Maria. See ALFONSO OF
CARTHAGENA.

Alphonsus Palentinus. See ALFONSO DE PALEN-
CIA.

Alpin. See ALPINUS.

Al-pi nus, written also Alpin, (PROSPER,) [It. PROS-
PERO ALPINI, pRo s pa-ro al-pee nce,] an eminent Italian
botanist and physician, born at Marostica, in the re
public of Venice, in 1553. He passed some years in
Egypt, and after his return published, in Latin, a work
"On the Plants of Egypt," (1591.) He also published
a treatise " On the Egyptian Practice of Medicine,"
(" De Medicina /Egyptiorum," 1591.) In 1593 he became
professor of botany at Padua. He was the first Euro
pean who published an account of the coffee-plant, and
he enriched the science of botany with many new facts.
He died in 1617, leaving in manuscript a valuable work
"On Exotic Plants," (""De Plantis Exoticis," 1628.)

See TOMASINI, " Elogia Virorum Illustrium ;" HALLER, "Biblio-
theca Botanica."

Alptageen or Alpteghin, alp ta-gcen , a Turkish
slave, regarded as the founder of the Gaznevide dynasty
in Eastern Persia, (in what is now called Afghanistan.)
Died in 976 A.D. His son-in-law Sabuktageen (or Sebek-
tagin) was the father of the famous Mahmood of Gazna.

Alquie, d , dtl ke-a , (FRANC.OIS SAVINIEN,) a French
author of the seventeenth century, wrote, besides other
works, "The Delights of France," ("Lcs Delices de la
France," 1670.)

Alquier, tl ke-a , (CHARLES JEAN MARIE,) a French
diplomatist, noted for his tact and amenity, born in La
Vendee in 1752. From 1798 to 1813 he was appointed
successively ambassador to Bavaria, Madrid, Florence,
Naples, Rome, Stockholm, and Copenhagen. In 1816
he was banished from France, on the ground of his
having, when in the National Convention, voted for
the death of Louis XVI. He was, however, recalled in
1818, and died in 1826.

Als, Sis or Slss, (PETER, or PEDER,) a Danish painter
of history and portraits, born at Copenhagen in 1725;
died in 1775.

Alsace, d , clSl sfs , (THOMAS Lours,) CARDINAL,
called also Alsace de Bossu, Sl sts deh bo sii ,
(THOMAS PHILIPPE DK Hennin or Henin ha nax ,)
was born at Brussels in 1680. He was descended from
the counts of Flanders and from the counts of Bossu.
In 1714 he was appointed by the Emperor of Germany
Archbishop of Malines (Mechlin) and. Primate of the
Austrian Netherlands. In 1719 he was raised to tne
dignity of cardinal. Died in 1759.

Al-Saffah or As-Seflah. See ABOO-L-ABBAS-AB-

ALSARIO DELIA CROCE

103

ALTHAEA

Alsario della Croce, al-sa re-o del la kRo cha, [Lat.
ALSA RILS,] a learned physician and writer, born at
Genoa about 1576. He gave lectures on medicine in
Rome for twenty years or more, and was physician to
Pope Gregory XV. Died after 1631.

Al-Sheik, al-shak or al-sha ik, (MosES,) a Jewish
rabbi, born at Sapheth, in Galilee, was celebrated as an
interpreter of the Scriptures, on which he wrote many
commentaries. Died about 1595.

Alsloot, van, vtn als-lot , (DANIEL,) a Flemish land
scape-painter, who was born at Brussels about 1550, and
died in the early part of the seventeenth century.

Alsop, aul sop, (ANTONY,) an English divine and
eminent classical scholar, who graduated at Cambridge
in 1696, and became a prebendary of Winchester. He
published a " Selection of the Fables of /Esop," in Latin
verse, ("/Esopicarum Fabularum Delectus," 1698.) He
also wrote Latin odes with facility. Died in 1727.

Alsop, aul sop, (RICHARD,) an American poet and
journalist, born at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1761.
With Theodore Dwight, Hopkins, Trumbull, and others,
called the "Hartford W 7 its," he issued, in 1791, the first
number of the " Echo," a satirical journal, directed chiefly
against the Democratic party. In 1800 he published a
Monody on the Death of Washington. He translated
"The Enchanted Lake of the Fairy Morgana," from
Berni s "Orlando Innamorato ;" and Molina s "Geo
graphical, Natural, and Civil History of Chili." Died
in 1815.

See GRISWOI.D, " Poets and Poetry of America."

Alsop, (Rev. VINCENT,) an English nonconformist
divine, who became minister of a Presbyterian congre
gation in Westminster. He gained distinction by his
strictures on Sherlock s work "On the Knowledge of
Christ," and his reply to a sermon by Stillingfleet against
nonconformists. Died at an advanced age in 1703.

See NICHOLS, "Literary Anecdotes."

Alsted, al stet, [Lat. ALSTE DIUS,] (JOHANN HEIN-
RICH,) a voluminous German writer on theology and
history, born near Herborn, in Nassau, in 1588. His
works, which were all written in Latin, were once highly
esteemed. Died in 1638.

Alston, auls ton, (CHARLES,) an eminent Scottish
botanist and physician, born at Eddlewood in 1683. He
began to read lectures on botany anc] materia medica at
Edinburgh soon after 1720, and was appointed professor
of the same in the university of that city about 1740.
His principal work is a manual of botany, entitled "Tiro
cinium Botanicon Edinburgense," (1753,) in which he
defended the system of Tournefort and wrote against
that of Linnaeus. Died in 1760. His lectures on Ma
teria Medica (2 vols., 1770) are highly commended.

See CHAMBKRS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Alston, (WASHINGTON.) See ALI.STON.

Alston, auls ton, ( WILLIS,) a native of Halifax county,
North Carolina, was a representative in Congress from
that Slate from 1799 to 1815, and from 1825 to 1831.
During the war of 1812 he was chairman of the Com
mittee of Ways and Means, the most honourable and at
the same time the most arduous and responsible posi
tion, after the speakership, in the National House of
Representatives. Died in 1837.

Alstorph, als torf, (JAN,) a Dutch antiquary, born at
Groningcn about 1680; died in 1719.

Alstromer or Alstroemer, al stRo-mer, (almost al -
stRum-er,) ( JONAS,) a distinguished Swede, born at Al
ingsas, in 1685, of poor and obscure parents. lie went
to seek his fortune, first to Stockholm and afterwards to
London, where he set up as ship-broker, in which busi
ness he appears to have been very successful. Although
he became an English citi/en, he still retained the warm
est attachment to his native country, to which he returned
about 1724. His earnest and untiring efforts were sub
sequently directed towards the improvement of Swedish
commerce and manufactures, by which he merited and
obtained the esteem and gratitude of his countrymen,
who conferred upon him many honours. He was made,
n 1739, a member of the Council of Commerce, and was
afterwards ennobled. Died in 1761.

See KRYGER, "Aminnelse-Tal bfver J. Alstromer."

as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; t-h as in t/tis.

Alstromer or Alstroemer, (KLAUDIUS or KLAS,) a
Swedish naturalist, born at Alingsas in 1736, was a son
of Jonas Alstromer, mentioned above. He studied
natural history under Linnasus, and travelled in Spain
to obtain information respecting sheep and other sub
jects. A journal which he wrote during this tour was
accidentally destroyed by fire. He published a " Dis
course on the Breeding of Fine-Woolled Sheep," (1770,)
which is highly praised. Died in 1796.

SeeDuBB, "Aminnelse-Tal bfver Clas Alstrbmer," 1796.

Alt, alt, (FRANZ JOSEPH NICOLAUS,) a Swiss historian,
born at Freiburg in 1689, bore the title of baron. He
wrote in French (of which he was not a perfect master)
a "History of Switzerland," (10 vols., 1749-52,) a work
of much research, but defective in style and criticism.
Died in 1770.

Altani, al-ta nee, (ANTONIO,) Bishop of Urbino, an
eminent Italian ecclesiastic of the fifteenth century. Died
in 1450.

Altani, (ANTONIO,) an Italian poet, born in Friuli
about 1510, was of the same family as the preceding.
He left in manuscript a great number of sonnets, can-
zoni, and epigrams, the most of which are lost. Died
about 1570.

Altani, (ENRICO,) an Italian dramatic poet, who
flourished in the first half of the seventeenth century.
Among his productions is "L Americo," a tragedy. His
works are commended by several Italian critics. Died at
an advanced age in 1648.

Altaroche, il ti rosh , (MARIE MICHEL,) a success
ful and witty French writer and journalist, born at Is-
soire (Puy-de-D6me) in 1811. He was chief editor of
the " Charivari" from 1834 to 1848, and sustained during
that period an exuberant flow of ready wit, raillery, and
satire. He published a volume of political songs, (1835,)
two historical studies entitled the " Reformation," and
the "Revolution," (1841,) and other works, which favour
democracy. He was elected to the Constituent Assem
bly in 1848.

Altdorfer, alt doR fer, written also Altorfer, (AL-
BRECIIT,) a celebrated German painter and engraver,
born at Altdorf, in Bavaria, in 1488. There is a doubt
ful tradition that he was a pupil of Albert Diirer. He
worked chiefly in Regensburg, (or Ratisbon,) and is called
by the French "Le Petit Albert," either in contradistinc
tion to Albert Diirer or because he seldom painted other
than small figures. Among his works is a remarkable
picture of the victory of Alexander at Arbela, which
contains a great number of figures. The details of cos
tume and accessories are very minutely represented. His
engravings on copper and wood are more numerous than
his paintings. Died in 1538.

See STRUTT, "Dictionary of Engravers."

Alteii, al ten, (KARL,) the youngest son of Baron Al-
ten, was born in Hanover in 1/64. He entered the Eng
lish army in 1803, became a major-general in 1812, and
commanded with great credit the third division of Wel
lington s army at the battle of Waterloo, in which he
was wounded. He was soon after created a count.
Died in 1840.

Altensteig or Altenstaig, al ten-stlo , (JOHANN or
JOHANNES,) a Roman Catholic theologian, a native of
Germany, flourished in the first half of the sixteenth
century.

Altenstein, al ten-stln, (KARL,) BARON, a Prussian
minister of public instruction, born at Anspach in 1770.
In 1815 he undertook the recovery of the works of art
and literary treasures which the French had removed
from Germany to Paris. For the successful accomplish
ment of this arduous task, all Germany owes him a debt
of gratitude. He became minister of public instruc
tion and worship in 1817, and made important changes
during the long period of his administration. Died in
1840.

Alter, al ter, (FRANZ CARL,) a German Jesuit and
eminent classical scholar, born in Silesia in 1749; died
in 1804. He published editions of Homer s "Iliad,"
Lucretius, and other Greek and Latin works.

Althaea, al-thce a, [Gr. \XOala ; Fr. ALTHEE, tl ta ,]
in the Greek mythology, was the wife of CEneus, King

Explanations, p. 23.)

ALTHAMMER

of Caltflon, and the mother of Meleager. (See MELEA-
GER )

Altliammer, alt ham mer, or Althamer, (ANDREAS,)
a distinguished German divine, born at Brenz, in Sua-
bia, in 1498. He embraced the principles of Luther in
1520, and became, by his learning, energy, and wisdom,
one of the chief pillars of the Reformation. Died in
1564. His best-known work is his "Diallage," (i.e.
"Reconciliation," 1528,) in which he attempts to explain
and reconcile those passages of Scripture which at first
sight appear to be contradictory.

Althen, Sl tSx , (HAN, e-han , or JEAN,) a native of
Persia, who became a benefactor to France by the in
troduction of madder, was born in 1711. His father was
the governor of a province. He was made captive in his
youth by some Arabs, and sold as a slave at Smyrna,
whence he escaped to Marseilles. He carried thither
some seeds of the madder, the exportation of which was
forbidden under penalty of death. Having the advan
tage of a handsome person, he married a rich heiress of
Marseilles, and was thus placed in a situation to pursue
at leisure his plans for the culture of madder in France.
He had observed that the soil and climate of the Comptat-
Venaissin were similar to those of Smyrna and Anatolia,
which were most favourable to the cultivation of madder.
His experiments in this part of France were crowned
with complete success, and the culture of madder has
since become extensive arjd very profitable. Diedin 1774.

See A. RASTOUL, " Vie de J, Althen," in " Portraits et Histoire des
Homines utiles."

Althof, alt hof, (Luowio CHRISTOPH,) a German
physician and medical writer, born at Detmold in 1758;
died in 1832.

Althorp, al thorp, (Lord JOHN CHARLES SPENCER,)
Earl Spencer, a liberal English statesman, the son of
George John, Earl Spencer, was born in May, 1782. He
was elected to Parliament for Oakhampton in 1804, and
was a junior lord of the treasury under the ministry of
Fox and Grenville, 1806-7. He represented Northamp
tonshire in the House of Commons from 1806 until 1834.
By his good sense, prudence, probity, and other moral
qualities, he acquired great influence, and was commonly
called "honest Lord Althorp." In 1830 he became
chancellor of the exchequer in the Whig ministry. He
inherited the title of Earl Spencer at the death of his
father in 1834, and resigned office in the same year. His
favourite pursuit was agriculture, to the improvement
of which he probably contributed more than any other
English nobleman of his time. Died in 1845.

See "Gentleman s Magazine" for November, 1845.

Althusen, alt hu sen, [Lat. ALTHU SIUS,] QOHANN,)
a Dutch jurist, born probably at Emden about 1556,
became professor of law at Herborn in 1590, and syndic
at Bremen. He was an enlightened friend of liberty,
and advocated the doctrine that supreme power is the
right of the people. He published a " System of Roman
Law," (1586,) and other works. Died about 1638.

See BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary."

Alticherio, al-te-ka re-o, or Aldigieri, al-de-ja ree,
(DA ZEVIO dad-za ve-o,) a distinguished Veronese
painter, who flourished in the latter half of the four
teenth century.

Alticozzi, al-te-kot see, (LORENZO,) an Italian Jesuit
and theological writer, born at Cortona in 1689. His
chief work is " Summa Augustiniana," (6 vols., 1744-61.)
Died in 1777.

Altieri. See CLEMENT X.

Altilio, al-tee le-o, [Lat. ALTIL IUS,] (GABRIELLO,) an
Italian poet and ecclesiastic, born about 1440. He lived
mostly at Naples. He is known as the author of some
short Latin poems of great merit, among which is an
Epithalamium on the marriage of Galeazzo Sforza, Duke
of Milan. Died about 1500.

Alting, al ting, [Lat. ALTIN GIUS,] (HEINRICH,) a
Calvinistic theological writer and professor, born at
Emden in 1583. He was preceptor of Frederick, King
of Bohemia, professor of theology at Heidelberg, and
subsequently at Groningen, 1627-44. Died in 1644.

. , See . ".Encyclopaedia Britannica," and BAYI.E, " Historical and Crit
ical Dictionary.

Alting, (JACOB,) a distinguished biblical scholar, son
of the preceding, was born at Heidelberg in 1618. In
1642 he was appointed professor of Hebrew and the
Oriental languages at Groningen. He wrote several
valuable exegetical and philological works, among which
was a Syro-Chaldaic grammar. Died in 1679.

See B. BECKER, "Vita J. Altingii," prefixed to his " Opera Oin-
nia. "

Alting, (MENSO,) a zealous Calvinistic preacher and
controversialist, born in Drenthe, a district of Holland,
in 1541, was the father of Heinrich, above noticed. He
was minister at Emden, and leader of his party in a con
test against the Lutherans. Died in 1612.

Alting, (MENSO,) a grandson of the preceding, was
born in 1636. He became burgomaster of Groningen,
and published a valuable work, entitled a "Description
of Lower Germany," ("Notitia Germanise Inferioris,"
1697.) Died in 1712.

See UBBO EMMIUS, "M. Altingii Vita," 1717.

Altissimo, al-tes se-mo, (i.e. "most sublime,") the
surname of a famous Italian poet and improvisatore
who lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century. His
true name is believed to have been CRISTOKORO Fio-
RENTINO, (kris-tof o-ro fe-o ren-tee no.) His best work
is an Italian metrical version of the first book of the
prose romance entitled " Reali di Francia."

Altissimo, dell , del-lal-tes se-mo, (CRISTOKANO,) an
eminent Florentine portrait-painter of the sixteenth cen
tury.

Altmann, alt man, (JOHANN GEORG,) a Swiss theo
logian, born at Zofingen in 1697, was professor of moral
philosophy and Greek at Berne. He published, be
sides other works, "Critical Observations on the New
Testament," (3 vols., 1737,) and was one of the two
editors of the "Tempe Helvetica," (6 vols., i7;s-47.)

T^ 1 1 rt J J

Died m 1758.

See ERSCH und CRUDER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Altmish, tlt mish, surnamed SHEMS (or SHUMS)
OOD-DEEN shems or shiinis ood-decn , (the "sun of re
ligion,") a young man of Tartar descent, who, from the
condition of a slave, became Sultan of Delhi in 1210 A.n.
He died in 1236. He was an able ruler, and was the
father of Ruzeea Begum and Mahmood Nasir ood-Dcen.

See FERISHTA S "History of the Mahomedan Power in India,"
translated by BRIGGS, vol. i.

Altobello, al-to-bel lo, (FRANCESCO ANTONIO,) a
Neapolitan historical painter of the seventeenth century,
was born at Bitonto. He worked at Naples, and ex
celled in invention and composition.

Altomare, al-to-ma ra, (DoN.vro ANTONIO,) [often
called in Latin DONA TUS \r, ALTOMA RI,] an eminent
Neapolitan physician and medical writer. Having been
driven from Naples by persecution, he was restored by
the mediation of Pope Paul IV. His chief work, "Ars Me-
dica," (1553,) has been often reprinted. Died about 1566.

Altomonte, al-to-mon ti, (MARTIXO,) an Italian
painter, born at Naples in 1657. He worked many
years in Vienna with success, and painted portraits of
the Austrian emperors. Died in 1745.

Alton, al ton, (RICHARD,) COUNT OF, a general in
the Austrian service, born in Ireland in 1732, command
ed in the Low Countries at the beginning of the insur
rection in 1789. He was forced to evacuate Brussels,
and died during his retreat towards Vienna in 1790.

His younger brother, EDWARD, Count of Alton, served
with distinction against the Turks and French. He fell
at the siege of Dunkirk in August, 1793.

Alton, d , dal ton, (JOHANN SAMUEL EDUARD,) a
physician, born at Saint Goar in 1803. He became pro
fessor of anatomy at Halle in 1834, and published a
"Manual of Comparative Anatomy of Man," (1850.)

Alton, d , (JOSEPH WILHELM EDUARD,) a German
naturalist and antiquary, the father of the preceding,
was born at Aquilcja in 1772. He studied natural his
tory and the fine arts, and travelled in France, England,
Spain, etc. He published a "Natural History of the
Horse," (1810,) and a " Comparative Osteology, " (1821-
28.) About 1821 he was appointed professor of archae
ology and the history of art in the University of Bonn,
where he remained until his death in 1840.

a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;

ALTON-SHEE

105

ALVAREZ

Aitoii-Shee, d , dil tox shi , (EDMOND,) COMTE, a
French democrat, born in 1810. lie was an active pro
moter of the revolution of February, 1848, advocated a
socialist regime, and acted with Ledru-Rollin.

Altorfer. Sec ALTDORFER.

Altoviti, al-to-vee tee, (ANTONIO,) born in 1521, at
Florence, was made archbishop of that city in 1548;
died in 1573.

Altovitis, al to ve tess , orAltouvitis, f 1 too ve tess ,
MADEMOISELLE, a poetess, born at Marseilles in 1550.
Died in 1606.

Altringer. See ALDRINGER.

Altschul, alt shool, (ELIAS,) a German homccopathic
physician, born at Prague in 1812. He published a
" Dictionary of Ocular Medicine," (2 vols., 1836.)

Altzenbach, alt sen-baK. , (WILHELM,) the name of
two German engravers (father and son) of the sev
enteenth century. They worked in Paris and Stras-
burg.

Alurino, a-loon no, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian gram
marian and calligraphist of the sixteenth century, was
born at Ferrara. lie is known as the author of two
works on the Italian language, which were often re
printed, viz. : " Riches of the Italian Language," (1543,)
and a Vocabulary containing the words in Dante, Pe
trarch, Boccaccio, and others, (1548.) Died in 1556.

Alunno, (NlCCOLO,) an Italian painter of Foligno,
flourished from 1450 to 1500, painted in water-colours,
and was an artist of great merit for his time. He was
one of those who contributed to the progress of art by
the freedom of his style. Among his works is a " Na
tivity of Christ."

See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters."

Alured. See ALFRED.

Alva, al va, or Al ba, [Sp. pron. al va,] (FERNANDO
ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO,) [Sp. pron. feR-nan do al va-
reth da to-la Do,] DUKE OF, [Fr. Due D ALKE, diik
dtlb,] a celebrated Spanish general under the emperor
Charles V. and Philip II., King of Spain, was born in
1508, of a noble and ancient Castilian family. At an
early age he entered the army of Charles V., whom he
afterwards accompanied in most of his campaigns. In
1556-7 he successfully defended Naples against the
allied French and Papal armies, and acquired a high
reputation as a prudent and able general. , He was sent
by Philip II., in 1567, to quell the insurrection which
had broken out among the Protestants of the Low
Countries. But, although in this war he displayed great
abilities as a general, the rigour of his administration,
and the extreme cruelty with which he treated the avowed
or suspected heretics who fell into his hands, doubtless
contributed more than any other cause towards the final
separation of those provinces from the Spanish crown.
Alva was recalled to Madrid in 1573. He boasted that
in the space of four years he had brought no fewer than
eighteen thousand persons to the scaffold! In 1580)16
invaded Portugal, and, after defeating the Portuguese
forces at the mouth of the Tagus, annexed that kingdom
to the dominions of Spain. Alva died in 1582.

See WATSON, "Philip II.;" PRESCOTT, "Philip II.," vol. ii. ;
MOTLEY, " History of the Dutch Republic;" J. ANTONIO DE VERA
Y FIGUEROA, " Kesultas de la Vicla de Fern. Alvarez tie Toledo,"
1643 ; " Vie du Due d Albe," Paris, i6g8 ; J. V. DE RUSTAUT, " His-
toriade Fern. Alvarez de Toledo Duque de Alva," 1750 ; J. MITCHELL,
Biographies of Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," 1865.

Alvarado, de, da al-va-ra/Do, (ALONZO,) a Spanish
officer, who served under Cortcz in Mexico, after the
conquest of which he went to Peru and obtained a high
command in the army of Pizarro. Having been sent
with five hundred men to reinforce the brothers of Pi
zarro at Cuzco, he was defeated and made prisoner by
Almagro in 1537. After the death of Pizarro he took
arms against Almagro the younger, and joined his troops
to those of De Castro, (1542.) He was lieutenant-gene
ral of the army which suppressed the rebellion of Gon-
zalo Pizarro in 1548.

See PRESCOTT, "Conquest of Peru."

Alvarado, de, (PEDRO,) a Spanish officer, born at
Badajos at the close of the fifteenth century, was one of
the principal companions of Cortez in the conquest of
Mexico. lie distinguished himself at the battles of Ta

basco and Otumba, and gained the full confidence of
Cortez. He was left in command of the city of Mexicc
when Cortez marched to encounter Narvaez. In 1523
he led a successful expedition against Zacatula, Tehuan-
tepec, and Guatemala, and received from the King of
Spain the title of Governor of Guatemala. He per
formed an arduous march over the Andes with a design
to seize Quito ; but, having met the troops of Pizarro, who
claimed the command in that place, he retired peaceably
after receiving a large indemnity for his expenses. He
was killed in a fight with some natives in 1541. Some
writers say his death was caused by a horse falling on
him down a steep bank.

See PRESCOTT, " Conquest of Mexico," vols. ii. and iii.

Alvares. See ALVAREZ.

Alvarez, al va-reth, (DiEGO,) a Spanish theologian,
born in Old Castile about 1550, became Archbishop ot
Trani, in Italy, in 1606. His chief work is "On the
Aids of Divine Grace," ("De Auxiliis Divinas Gratia:,
1610.) Died about 1633.

Al va-rez, [Port. pron. al va-rez,] (EMANUEL,) a
Portuguese Jesuit, bom in the island of Madeira in 1526 :
died in 1582. Among other works, he was the author of
an excellent Latin grammar.

Alvarez, (FRANCISCO,) a Portuguese priest, born at
Coimbra, became chaplain to King Manoel some time
before 1515. Soon after this date he accompanied
Duarte Galvam on a mission to the King of Abyssinia,
who was then called Prester John. He passed about
six years in that strange country, and returned home in
1527. A long and valuable account of this mission was
published in 1540, with the title "Prester John of the
Inclias : a True Account of the Country of Prester
John," ("Ho Prcste Joam das Inclias : verdadera Infor-
ma9am das Terras do Preste Joam.") He is regarded as a
candid and veracious writer. Died probably about 1540.

See F. DENIS, "Le Monde enchante," etc.; RAMUSIO, " Viaggi
e Navigazioni."

Alvarez, (GoMEZ,) a Spanish poet, born in 1488;
died in 1538.

Alvarez, (Don JOSE,) one of the most eminent Span
ish sculptors, was born at Priego, in the province of
Cordova, in 1768. He became a student in the Acad
emy of Madrid in 1794, gained there a prize of the first
class, and received from the king a pension of twelve
thousand reals (fifteen hundred dollars) in 1799, after
which he pursued his studies in Paris. His reputation
was increased by a statue of Ganymede, (1804.) He
worked chiefly in Rome, and became a member of the
Academy of Saint Luke. Among his master-pieces are
"Orpheus Sleeping," a "Venus and Cupid," and a
group of "Antilochus and Memnon." He received the
title of court-sculptor to Ferdinand VII. about 1818.
Died at Madrid in November, 1827. His son, a prom
ising sculptor, died in 1830, aged about twenty-five.

SeeBERMUDEZ, "Diccionario Historico;" NAGLER, "Allgemeines
Kunstler-Lexikon."

Alvarez, (JuAN,) a Mexican general, born in 1790,
was distinguished for his energy and boldness. He took
a prominent part in the insurrection which began in
1854 and which deprived Santa Anna of power in 1855.
Alvarez became President of Mexico about September,
1855, and abolished the old privilege (fttero) of the clergy
and the army. He resigned in December, 1855.

Alvarez, (Don MANUEL,) a distinguished Spanish
sculptor, born at Salamanca in 1727, was a pupil of Fe
lipe de Castro. He gained the first prize at Madrid in
1754, and became sculptor to the king in 1794. The
purity and vigour of his design procured for him the sur
name of "El Griego," ("the Greek.") Died in 1797.

Alvarez, (Don MARTIN,) Count of Colomera, a Span
ish general, born in Andalusia about 1714. He obtained
in 1779 the command of the army which besieged Gib
raltar without success for several years, and was super
seded by the Due de Crillon in 1782. Having been raised
to the rank of captain-general, he commanded in 1794
against the French, whose progress he failed to arrest.
He was removed in February, 1795. Died in 1819.

Alvarez, (ToMAS,) a Spanish physician of Seville,
published a treatise on the plague in 1569.

e as k; c as s; g hard; g is/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

ALVAREZ

1 06

AMADESI

Alvarez, de, cli al va-reth, (BERNARDO,) a Spanish
adventurer, born at Seville in 1514, founded several hos
pitals in Mexico. Died in 1584.

Alvarez de Cabral. See CABRAL.

Alvarez de Castro, al va-rgth da kas tRo, (MARI
ANO,) a Spanish officer, born at Granada, was distin
guished for his resolute defence of Gerona against the
French, by whom it was taken in 1809, after a siege
of seven months. He died in prison about the end of
1809.

See SOUTHEY, "History of the Peninsular War."

Alvarez de Coimenar. See COLMENAR.

Alvarez de Luna. See LUNA.

Alvarez do Oriente, al va-rez do o-re-en ta, (i.e.
"Alvarez of the East,") (FERNAO,) a Portuguese poet of
great merit, born at Goa, in India, about 1540. Scarcely
anything is known of his life, except that he was bred to
the sea and at one time was himself the captain of a
vessel. His chief work is entitled " Portugal Trans
formed," ("A Lusitania transformada," 1607,) a pastoral
partly in verse and partly in prose.

Alvarez y Baeiia, al va-reth e ba-a na, (JosE AN
TONIO,) a Spanish biographer, born at Madrid, wrote
the "Illustrious Sons of Madrid," ("Hijos de Madrid
illustres," 4 vols., 1789-91.) Died about 1803.

Alvaro, al va-ro, (GIOVANNI,) a Neapolitan painter,
who flourished in the first half of the eighteenth century.

Alvarotto, al-va-rot to, QACOPO,) a distinguished
feudal lawyer, born at Padua in 1385 ; died in 1453.

Alvar Paez, al vaR pa es, or Alvar Pajo, al vaii
pa zho, [Lat. AI/VARUS PELA GIUS,] a theologian, born
probably in Portugal, became Bishop of Silves in Al-
garve about 1334. His chief work is "On the Com
plaint of the Church," ("De Planctu Ecclesiae,") com
pleted in 1332. He maintains in this the supremacy of
the pope. Died about 1350.

Al va-rus, (PAULUS,) often called Al varus Cordu-
ben sis, (i.e. " Alvarus of Cordova,") from the place
of his birth, a Christian writer of the ninth century.

Alvarus. Sec ALVAREZ.

Alvensleben, voii, fon al vens-la ben, (ALBRECHT,)
COUNT, a Prussian minister of state, born in 1794. He
was minister of finances from 1836 to 1842.

Alvensleben, von, (KARL GERHARD,) a Prussian
general, born in 1778. He fought at Jena in 1806, com
manded a regiment at Lutzen in 1813, and rendered im
portant service at Bautzen. He became a general in
1817. Died in 1831.

Alvensleben, von, (PHILIP CHARLES,) COUNT, a
diplomatist in the service of Prussia, born at Hanover
in 1745, was made a count in 1801, and died in 1802.

Alves, al ves, (ROBERT,) a Scottish poet, born at
Elgin in 1745, wrote "The Weeping Bard," and "The
Banks of the Esk," (published in 1801.) Died in 1794.

Alviano, al-ve-d no, (BARTOLOMMEO,) an Italian gen
eral who was famous for his courage, audacity, and skill
in the wars that preceded and followed the League of
Cambrai, was born about 1455. Having entered the
service of Venice, he routed the Imperialists near Ca-
dore in 1508, and was promoted to the position of gen-
eral-in-chief. He was defeated and taken prisoner by
Louis XII. of France at Ghiera d Adda in 1509. The
Venetians and the French having become allies, he was
released in 1513. The victory of the French at Mari-
gnano, in 1515, is ascribed in great measure to him. He
was a lover of literature, and a .generous patron of lite
rary men. Died of fever in 1515.

See SISMONDI, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes."

Alvinczy, Alvinzi, or Alvinzy, von, pronounced
alike fon al-vmt se, (JOSEPH,) BARON, an Austrian gen
eral, was born at Vincz, (Vints,) in Transylvania, in 1 735,
(or, as some authorities say, in 1726.) He became a licu-
tenant-ficld-marshal in 1789, and greatly distinguished
himself as commander of a division in the campaigns of
1792 and 1793 against the French. After the defeat of
Wunnser in Italy in the summer of 1796, Marshal Al
vinczy was appointed to the command of a new army of
about fifty or sixty thousand men, sent against Bona
parte. He entered Italy from Carinthia, and fought an
indecisive action at Bassano on the 6th of November,

1796. In the same month he was defeated by Bona
parte at Arcola, after a battle of three clays duration.
"The ruinous fetters of the Aulic Council," says Alison,
"paralyzed all the movements of Alvinzi, who in this
strife evinced neither the capacity nor spirit of a general
worthy to combat Napoleon." Having been again de
feated at Rivoli in January, 1797, he resigned his com
mand. Died in 1810.

See BOTTA, " Storia d ltalia ;" ALISON, "Historyrf Europe."

Alvintzi or Alvinczi, al-vint se, (PETER,) a Protest
ant divine and writer, who lived at Waradin and Ka-
schau, in Hungary, in the early part of the seventeenth
century. Two volumes of his sermons were published
in 1632 and 1634.

Al-Waleed or Al-Walid (al-wa leed ) I., the sixth
caliph of the race of Omeyyah, ascended the throne of
Damascus in 705. During his reign, Toorkistan in the
East, and Spain in the West, were added to the Arabian
Empire, and the Omeyyah dynasty attained the acme of
its power. Died in 715 A.D.

See WEIL, "Geschichte cler Chalifen."

Alxiiiger, alk sing-er, (JoiiANN BAPTIST,) a German
scholar and poet, born at Vienna in 175=5. He wrote
lyric, dramatic, and epic poems. Among his most popu
lar works is "Doolin von Mainz," an epic poem, (1787.)
He was well acquainted with the best works in the an
cient as well as the modern languages, and is said to have
known the whole of the /lineid by heart. As a man he
was distinguished by a noble and unostentatious gene
rosity towards all who needed his sympathy or aid. He
died in 1797.

Aly. See ALEE.

A-ly-at tes, [Gr. AAuurrT?!, 1 ; Fr. ALYATTE, i le-tt ,] a
celebrated king of Lydia, the father of Croesus, began to
reign about 618 B.C. He waged war for five years against
Cyaxares, King of Media. A battle between them was
interrupted by an eclipse of the sun, in consequence of
which they made a treaty of peace. This eclipse, pre
dicted by Thales, is supposed to have occurred in 610
B.C. Alyattes reigned fifty-seven years.

See HERODOTUS, book i. ; ROI.LIN, "Ancient History;" HAMIL
TON, "Researches in Asia Minor."

Alyon, i le-oN , (PIERRE PHILIPPE,) a French phar
macist, naturalist, and writer, born at Auvergne in 1758;
died about 1820.

A-lyp i-us, [Gr. A?.i mof,] an architect of Antioch,
lived in the fourth century. He was charged by Julian
the Apostate to rebuild the temple at Tei usalem. But
this design was frustrated, if we may credit the statement
of an excellent pagan historian, ( Ammianus Marcellinus,)
by eruptions of fire from the earth.

See GIBBON, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, "chap, xxiii.

Alypius, [ AP.i mof,] an ancient Greek musician and
writer on music. Fragments sif his work are extant.

Alypius, a distinguished Greek sophist of the fourth
century, born at Alexandria, in Egypt, excelled in dia
lectics.

Aly Shir. See ALEE- SHEER- AMEER.

Alyy. See ALEE.

Alzate y Ramirez, al-sa ti. e ra-mee res, (JosE
ANTONIO,) a distinguished astronomer and geographer
who lived at Mexico in the early part of the eighteenth
century. His numerous works are written in Spanish.

Amac, (a Persian poet.) See AMAK.

Amadei, a-ma-da ce, (GiROLAMO,) an Italian priest,
born about 1483, preached and wrote against Luther.
Died in 1543.

Amadei, (STEFANO,) an Italian painter of history and
portraits, born at Perugia in 1589. He excelled in the
use of the crayon, and worked in Rome. Died in 1644.

See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy."

Amadeo, a-ma-cla o, or Amadei, a-ma-da ee, (Gio-
VANNI ANTONIO,) a distinguished Italian sculptor, born
at Pavi a about 1400. Among his principal works are
the monuments of the Venetian general Colleoni and his
daughter, at Bergamo. Died in 1474.

Amadesi, a-ma-da scc, (DoMF.Nico,) a popular Italian
poet, born at Bologna in 1657, was a rich merchant, rlis
first poems appeared under the anagram " Simonidc de
Meaco," (1709.) Died in 1730.

a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mt; nSt; good; moon;

107

AMALTEO

Amadesi, (GIUSEPPE LUIGI,) a distinguished anti
quary and scholar, born at Leghorn, of Bolognese
parents, in 1701. lie contributed to Calogera s " Rac-
colta di Opuscoli," and published "Dc Comitatu Argen-
tato," (1763.) Died in 1 773.

Am-a-de us, [It. AMEDF.O, a-ma-da o, or AMADEO,
a-ma-da o; Fr. AMEDEE, i mi da ,] the name of several
counts and dukes of Savoy from about noo to 1472.

Amadeus I. of Savoy, a son of Humbert, Count of
Mauriciine, lived in the first half of the eleventh century.

Amadeus II. was a nephew of the preceding, and a
son of Oddo by his wife Adelaide of Susa. Died in the
eleventh century. He was succeeded by his son. Hum
bert II.

Amadeus III., Count of Mauricnnc, succeeded his
father, Humbert II., in 1103. He went to Palestine on
a crusade with his nephew, Louis VII. of France, in
1147, and died in Cyprus in 1148. His successor was his
son, Humbert II 1.

Amadeus IV. succeeded his father, Thomas I.,
Count of Savoy, in 1233. He made some additions to
his dominions. Died in 1253.

Amadeus V., born in 1249, was a son of Thomas II.
of Savoy, Count of Flanders. He succeeded his uncle
Philip as Count of Savoy in 1285. He died in 1323,
leaving the crown to his son Edward.

Amadeus VI., born in 1334, was a son of Aymon,
Count of Savoy, whom he succeeded in 1343. He was
one of the most able and successful princes of the house
of Savoy. He defeated the French at Arbrette in 1354,
and, having joined a crusade against the Turks, took
Gallipoli in 1366 and released the captive emperor
John. He acquired large accessions of territory in Pied
mont. Died in 1383.

Amadeus VII., born about 1360, succeeded his
father, Amadeus VI., at the age of twenty-three. He
was styled the " Red Count," from the colour of his ar
mour, lie annexed Nice to his dominions. Died in
I39I-

Amadeus VIII., son of Amadeus VII., succeeded
his lather in 1391, being then only eight years old. In
1416 he was created by the emperor Sigismund first
Duke of Savoy. He enjoyed a great reputation for wis
dom, and was called the Solomon of his age. In 1434
he made his son Louis lieutenant-general of his domin
ions, and retired to the monastery of Ripaillc, which he
had founded. Having remained here five years, he was
elected pope by the Council of Bale, in the place of
Eugenius IV., whom they had deposed. Amacleus ac
cepted the office, though with great reluctance, taking
the name of Felix V. Afterwards, wishing to put an
end to the schism in the Church, he publicly renounced
his claims to the papacy in favour of Nicholas V., who
on the death of Eugenius had been elected at Rome.
Died in 1451.

Amadeus IX., a son of Louis, Duke of Savoy, and
a grandson of the preceding, was born at Thonon in
1435, an( l began to reign in 1465. He married Yolancle,
a daughter of Charles VII. of France. Died in 1472,
and was succeeded by his son Philibert.

Am a-dis de Gaul or Gaii la, the hero of a famous
romance of chivalry written in the thirteenth century by
Vasco de Lobeira, a Portuguese. (See LOHEIRA.) "The
Amadis," says Ticknor, "is admitted by general consent
to be the best of all the old romances of chivalry."

See TICKNOK, " Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. xi. p. 22ici sey.

Amador Rebello, a-ma-doR ra-bel lo, a Portuguese
Jesuit and writer, born in 1^39 ; died at Lisbon in 1622.

Amaduzzi, a-ma-doot/see, [in Latin, AMADU THTS,]
(GIOVANNI CRISTOFORO,) a learned Italian writer, born
near Rimini in 1740, was professor of Greek in Rome.
He published " Anecdota Literaria," (3 vols., 1774,) and
other works. Died in 1792.

Amaia. See A MAYA.

Amak Bokharee, (or Bokhari,) am ak bo-Ka ree,
(i.t: " Amak the Bokharian,") written also Amac and
Amik, a Persian poet, whose life was nearly coexten
sive with the eleventh century.

A-mal ar-ic, | Lat. AMALARI CUS,] the last kintr of
the Visigoths that reigned in Spain, was a son of Alaric
II., who died in 507 A.D. He married Clotilde, a

daughter of Clovis, King of the Franks. He was killed
during a war against the Franks, in 531 A.D.

Am-a-la ri-us For-tu-iia tus, an archbishop of
Treves, who was sent by Charlemagne, in Su A.D., to
diffuse Christianity among the Saxons. He established
the first church at Hamburg. In 813 he went as ambas
sador to Constantinople. Died in 814 A.D.

Am a-lek, [Heb. p-D&gt; .] a king of the Amalek-
ites, who opposed the Israelites on their flight from
Egypt. He was defeated at the battle of Rephidim. (See
Exodus xvii. 8-14; Deuteronomy xxv. 17.)

Amalfi. See AVALOS, (COSTANZA.)

Amalie, a-ma le-eh, or Ame lia, (ANNA,) Princess
of Prussia, and sister of Frederick the Great, was born
in 1723. She had a remarkable talent for music, to
which she devoted her life. Her musical library was
the finest and most complete ever collected. Died in
1787.

Amalie, or Amelia, (ANNA,) Duchess of Saxe-
Weimar and Eisenach, a daughter of the Duke of Bruns
wick- Wolfenbiittel, born in 1739, was distinguished as
a patron of genius and learning. She assembled at her
court the brightest ornaments of German literature,
among others Wieland, Herder, Goethe, etc. She was
mother of the duke Karl August. Died in 1807.

See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon."

Amalie, (CATHERINE,) a German poetess, born in
1640, married the Count George Lewis (Georg Ludwig)
of Erbach. Died in 1696.

Amalie or Amelia, (ELISABETH,) a grand-daughter
of William I., Prince of Orange, was born in 1602, and
in 1619 married William V., Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel.
After his death, in 1637, she was made regent, in which
capacity she displayed extraordinary energy, wisdom,
and virtue. Died in 1651.

See K. W. JUSTI, "Amalie Elisabeth Landgrafm von Hessen."

Amalie or Amelia, (MARIE FRIEDERIKE AUGUSTE,)
Duchess of Saxony, born in 1794, was a sister of Fred
erick Augustus II. She cultivated poetry and music,
and wrote in German successful dramas, among which
are " Falsehood and Truth," " The Marriage-Ring,"
" Cousin Henry," and " The Young Lady from the
Country."

See articleby Professor FEI.TON, in the " North American Review,"
vol. lii.. and " Social Life in Germany, illustrated in the acted Dramas
of the Princess Amelia," etc., translated from the German by Mrs.
JAMESON.

Amalric OF JERUSALEM. See AM"AURY.

Amalric, S mtl Rek , (ARNAUD,) a French ecclesiastic
of the thirteenth century, distinguished by the energy
and sanguinary cruelty which he displayed against the
heretics of Languedoc, commonly known as the Albi-
genses. He was made Archbishop of Narbonne in 1212,
and soon after assumed the title of Duke of Narbonne.
Died in 1225.

Amalricus. See AMALRIC and AMAURY.

Am-al-a-scm tha, written also Amalasoiite, [Lat.
AMALASUEN TA,] Queen of the Goths in Italy, distin
guished for her wisdom, was a daughter of Theodoric I.
She began to reign in 526 A.D., as guardian of her son,
who was a minor. The famous Cassiodorus was her
prime minister. She was assassinated in 535.

See J. D. RITTER, "Dissertatio de Amalasuenta," 1735.

Amalteo, a-mal-ta o, [Lat. AMALTHF/US ; Fr. AMAL-
TIIEE, t m&l ti ,] (CoRNELio,) an Italian poet, born at
Oderzo about 1530. His profession was medicine. He
wrote Latin poems, the best of which is entitled " Pro
teus," (1572.) Died in 1603.

Amalteo, (FRANCESCO,) the father of the preceding,
was born towards the close of the fifteenth century. He
taught literature in several cities of Italy, and had some
reputation as a writer of Latin verse. lie had three
sons, who were poets.

Amalteo, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA ) an excellent Latin
poet, a son of Francesco, noticed above, born at Oderzo
in 1525, became secretary to the republic of Ragusa.
lie wrote Latin eclogues, elegies, and epigrams, and
verses in Greek and Italian. His Latin poems are con
sidered equal in elegance to those of any poet of his
time. Died in Rome in 1573,50011 after he had become

as k; c as s: g hard: g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as r; th as in this. (JJJf^Sec Explanations, p. 23.)

AMALTEO

108

AMAT

secretary to Pope Pius VII. He is regarded as the
most eminent poet of all his family.

Amalteo, (GIROLAMO,) a brother of the preceding,
born at Oderzo in 1506, was a physician, philosopher,
and celebrated Latin poet. He practised medicine with
great success at several places. His reputation is founded
on two Latin epigrams, entitled "De Gemellis Luscis,"
(" On the One Eyed Twins,") and " Horologium Pul-
vereum," (" Hour-Glass,") the former of which has been
translated into many languages. Died in 1574.

Amalteo, (GIROLAMO,) a brother and pupil of Pom-
ponio, noticed below, was a historical painter of distin
guished ability. His chief works are small pictures,
highly finished. He died at an early age.

See ALTAN, "Memorie intorno alia Vita di Pomponio Amalteo;"
LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."

Amalteo, [Lat. AMALTHEUS,] (PAOLO, or PAUL,) an
Italian poet, born at Pordenone in 1460, was a brother
of Francesco, noticed above. Died in 1517.

Amalteo, (PoMi ONio,) an eminent painter of the
Venetian school, was born in Friuli in 1505. He was a
pupil of Pordenone, whose style he imitated, though with
less grandeur of invention. His colouring is brilliant,
and his drawing correct. Among his master-pieces are
"The Judgment of Solomon," and "The Judgment of
Daniel."

Am-al-the a or Am-al-thei a, [Gr. Aiiu/Meta; Fr.
AMALTHEE, i mtl ta ,] in Greek mythology, the name
of the nurse of Jupiter. According to one tradition, she
was a goat, whose horn Jupiter broke off and filled with
herbs, fruits, flowers, etc., and endowed it with the prop
erty of supplying whatever its possessor might desire.
This was the origin of the fable of the Cornucopias, or
" horn of plenty."

Amalthee, the French of AMALTEO, which sec.

Amaltheus. See AMALTEO.

Amama, a-ma ma, (SIXTI NUS,) a Dutch Protestant
and biblical philologist, born at Franeker in 1593. He
was professor of Oriental languages at that city from
1618 until his death, and declined the chair vacated by
Erpenius at Leyden. He was the author of a critical
work on the historical books of the Old Testament, and
a number of Latin treatises. Died in 1629.

Aman, a man, QOIIANN,) a German architect, born
in Baden in 1765. He designed several public buildings
in Austria and other countries. Died about 1834.

Amaud, t mS.\ , SAINT, [Lat. SANC TUS AMAN -
DUS,] a bishop of Bordeaux in the fifth century, eminent
for his piety and purity of life.

Amand or Amaiidus, SAINT, a French ecclesi
astic, born about 590. He was a man of eminent vir
tues. Died in 679 A.D.

Amand, (JACQUES,) a French engraver, born near
Blois in 1730; died in Paris in 1769.

Amand, (PIERRE,) a French surgeon and writer on
obstetrics, born at Riez about 1650; died in 1720.

Amanieu des Escas, t mft nc-uh d.YzeVka , a
troubadour, who flourished in the latter half of the thir
teenth century. He passed a part of his life at the court
of James II. of Aragon.

Amantoii or Amanthoii, t mSN toN , (CLAUDE
NICOLAS,) a judge at Dijon, in France, and a writer on
biography and local history, born in 1760; died in 1835.

Amar, I mia , (ANDRE,) (or Amar, J. P., according
to the "Biographic Universelle,") a French demagogue,
born at Grenoble in 1750, was notorious for his cruelty
in the reign of terror. He was elected to the Conven
tion in 1792, voted for the death of the king, and became
chairman of the committee of surete gfntrale in Septem
ber, 1793. I" October he wrote and presented to the
Convention a report which condemned the twenty-two
Girondins arrested in June and ordered the arrest of
seventy-three other deputies. lie acted with the enemies
of Robespierre on the gth of Thermidor, 1794, and de
fended Barrere, Collot d Herbois, and Billaud-Varennes
in 1795. Died in Paris in 1816.

Amar (or Amare) du Rivier, finta clii re ve-i ,
(JEAN AUGUSTIN,) often called simply Amar or Amare,
an able French critic and miscellaneous writer, born in
Paris in 1765. He became conservator of the Mazarin
Library in 1809. He made translations of many of the

ancient classics, published several school-books, and
wrote many articles for the " Biographic Universelle."
Died in 1837.

Amarai, A-ma-raK, (ANDRES DO,) a Portuguese, who
became chancellor of the order of Saint John of Jerusa
lem while that order had possession of the island of
Rhodes. He was defeated as a candidate for the orfice
of grand master in 1521. During the siege of Rhodes
by the Turks in 1522 he was put to death on a charge
of giving intelligence to the enemy.

See VERTOT, "Histoirc ties Chevaliers Hospitallers de St. Jean;
FONTANUS, " De Bello Rhodico," 1524.

Amarai, (ANTONIO Caetano (ka-a-ta no) DO,) a Por
tuguese writer, born at Lisbon in 1747. He wrote a
very valuable work on the early history of Portugal,
entitled " Memorias sobre a Forma do Govcrno e Cos
tumes," etc. Died in 1819.

Am a-ra Siiigha or Siiiha, am a-ra sing ha, [mod
ern Hindoo pron. lim ur-a sing ha,] a celebrated Hindoo
poet and grammarian, who is supposed to have flourished
in the first century B.C. lie belonged to the Booddhist
sect. His works were all destroyed by the Brahmans,
except a vocabulary of the Sanscrit language, entitled
"Amara Kosha," which is esteemed a standard work.

Amari, a-ma ree, (EMERICO.) an Italian political
economist, born at Palermo in 1810. He became pro
fessor of law at Palermo in 1841.

Amari, (MiciiELE,) an Italian historian, born at
Palermo in 1806. His father was condemned to an im
prisonment of thirty years for a conspiracy against the
government. He published in 1842 his principal work,
"The War of the Sicilian Vespers," ("La Guerra del
Vespro Siciliano," 2 vols.,) which had great success, but
was prohibited by the government. The author was
summoned to trial, but escaped to France. He took an
active part in the revolution of Sicily in 1848, and was
appointed minister of finances in the new government.
He resigned office before the end of the year. He has
since resided in Paris, and published the first volume of
a "History of the Mussulmans in Sicily."

Amariton, S mt re tox , (JEAN,) a French jurist, born
in Auvergne ; died in 1590.

Am a-sa, [Xiyo^*,] a Hebrew warrior, who was ap
pointed by Absalom, when he rebelled, captain of the
host instead of Joab. After the suppression of this re
bellion he became commander of the army of David,
and was treacherously slain by Joab. (See II. Samuel
xvii. 25 ; xx. 4-10.)

Amaseo, a-ma-sa o, [Lat. AMAS/E US,] (POMPILIO,)
an Italian scholar, was a son of Romolo, noticed below.
Died about 1584.

Amaseo, (ROMOLO,) a celebrated Italian scholar and
orator, born at Udine in 1489 ; died about 1552. He
was professor of belles-lettres (literae humaniores) at
Padua, Bologna, and Rome. Among his works may be
mentioned a Latin version of Pausanias, (1547,) and a
Latin version of Xenophon s "Anabasis," (1533.)

A-ma sis, [Gr. "A.unair,] a celebrated king of Egypt,
succeeded Apries about 570 i!.c. He is said to have
been a man of liberal and independent spirit, and free
from the prejudices against foreigners which were com
mon among the Egyptians. His reign was prosperous
and peaceful. He built the grand temple of Isis at
Memphis, and adorned Egypt with many magnificent
monuments. Died about 525 H.C., leaving the throne to
his son Psammcnitus, (or Psammctichus.)

A-mas tris, a Persian lady of superior talents, and
a niece of Darius Codomannus. She was married suc
cessively to Craterus, to Dionysius, tyrant of Heraclea,
and to Lysimachus, King of Thrace.

Amat, a-rnat , (FELIX,) an eminent Spanish eccle
siastic and writer, born at Sabadell, near Barcelona, in
1750. He became Archbishop of Palmyra m partibus
infidelium in 1803, and confessor to Charles IV. in 1806.
He was supposed to be favourable to the French
during the war which began in 1808. His great work is
an ecclesiastical history, entitled " Treatise on the Church
of Jesus Christ," (" Tratado dc la Tglesia de Jesu Cristo,"
12 vols., 1793-1803.) Died in 1824.

See FEI.IX TORRES AMAT, " Vida de Amat Arzobispo de Pal
myra," 1835.

a. e, I, o, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;

AM AT I

109

AMBOISE

Amati, a-ma tee, (ANDREA,) a celebrated maker of
violins, worked at Cremona in partnership with his bro
ther Niccolo about 1550. Their instruments are highly
prized at the present time.

Amati. (ANTONIO,) a son of the preceding, born at
Cremona about 1565, followed the same business with
success. He made for Henry IV. of France, in 1595, a
violin, which is said to be now in good order.

Amati, (CARLO,) an eminent Italian architect, born
at Milan about 1786. Among his chief works is the
Rotunda of San Carlo, at Milan.

Amati, (GIROLAMO,) a distinguished Italian scholar
and antiquary, born at Savignano in 1768. He was an
assistant librarian in the Vatican, and was regarded as
an oracle among antiquaries. lie wrote papers on the
antiquities of philology and art for the " Giornale Arca-
dico, :&gt; and furnished materials for the works of other
authors. His sagacity in palceographical science was
remarkable. Died in 1834.

Amati, (PASQUALE,) an Italian antiquary, born at
Savignano in 1716; died in 1796.

Amatius, a-ma she-us, (CAius,) a famous impostor,
who made his appearance at Rome about 45 B.C., claim
ing to be the grandson of Marius. He was strangled by
order of Antony about 43 or 44 B.C.

Amato. See A MAT us.

Amato, d , da-ma to, or Amati, a-ma tee, [Lat.
AMA TUS,] (ELIA,) a literary Italian monk, born at Mon-
talto in 1666. He wrote on various subjects, and dis
played a talent for dry humour. Died in 1747.

Amato, d , (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) a celebrated his
torical painter, called " II Vecchio," (" The Elder,") was
born at Naples in 1475. Iiis st } le resembles that of
Perugino in simplicity. He painted religious subjects
exclusively, and was also noted as a theologian. Among
his master-pieces are a " Dispute on the Sacrament," at
Naples, and a " Madonna and Child." He painted in
oil and fresco. Died in 1555.

Amato, d , (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) a nephew and
pupil of the preceding, surnamed IL GIOVANE, (i.e.
"the younger,") born at Naples in 1535, was a skilful
painter. He excelled in colouring, and painted some
works which are said to be as finely coloured as those
of Titian. His chief work is an altar-piece of the infant
Christ, in a church of Naples. Died in 1598.

See DOMINICI, "Vite de Pittori Napolitani."

Amato, d , (MICHELK,) an Italian theologian, born
at Naples in 1682; died in 1729.

Amato or A-ma tus, (Scii io,) an Italian jurist and
linguist, flourished between 1600 and 1650.

Amato or Amati, [Lat. AMA TUS,] (VINCFNZO,) a
Sicilian musician and composer, born in 1629; died in
1670.

Amatrice, dell , del la-ma-tRee cha, (Co LA,) a Nea
politan architect and painter, who nourished in the early
part of the sixteenth century. He worked at Ascoli.
His master-piece is a picture of the "Last Supper."

See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."

Am-a tus Lu-si-ta nus, [Port. JOAO RODRIGUEZ
AMATO, zho-owN ro-dRec gez a-ma to ; Lat. JOAN NES
RODERI CUS AMA TUS,] an eminent Portuguese physi
cian and anatomist, born at Castel-Branco in 1511. lie
lectured in Venice, and practised at Ancona. In 1555
the fear of the Inquisition, which persecuted him as a
Jew, induced him to retire to Saloniki, where he joined
a synagogue. Died in 1568. He is said to have been
the second author who has described the valves in
veins. He left, besides other works, one giving an ac
count of seven hundred remarkable cases in medicine
and surgery, (1551-66,) which was highly esteemed.

See SPRENGEL, "Biographic Mddicalc."

Amaiiry. See AMALRIC.

A-mau ry, [Fr. pron. t mo re ,] Aimery, a meh-re,
TFr. pron. em re ,] or Am-al ric, [Ger. AMALRICII,
a mal-riK. ; Lat. AMALRI CUS,] 1, King of Jerusalem,
born in 1135, was a son of Baldwin II. He succeeded
Sis brother Baldwin III. in 1162. He invaded Egypt in
1168, and marched victoriously to Cairo, but was driven
out by an army of Turks under Saladin, who invaded
the kingdom of Amaury in 1170. The latter defended

his dominions with ability and courage, but with ill suc
cess, until his death in 1173, and left the throne to his
son, Baldwin IV.

Amaury II. OF JERUSALEM (otherwise called
Amaury de Lusignaii deh lii zen ydN ) inherited
Cyprus from his brother Guy, and received the title of
King of Jerusalem in 1194. He was unable to defend
the kingdom against the Saracens, and died at Ptole-
mais in 1205.

Amaury, Amalric, or Aimcric, [Lat. AMALRI
CUS,] Patriarch of Jerusalem, succeeded Fulcher in 1159.
He contributed much to the election of Amaury I. as
King of Jerusalem. Died in 1180.

Amaury, s mo re , [Lat. AMALRI CUS,] OF CHAR-
TRES, a French theologian of the twelfth century. He
advanced heterodox opinions on the Divine nature (which
he identified with the primary matter of Aristotle) in a
work called "Physion," now lost. Died about 1205.

Amaury-Duval. See DUVAL.

Amaya, a-ml a, a Spanish painter, a pupil of Vin-
cenzo Carducci, lived about 1682.

Amaya or Amaia, (FRANCISCO,) a noted Spanish
jurisconsult of the seventeenth century, born at Ante-
quera. He published " Observationes Juris," (1625,) and
other works.

Am-a-zi ah, [Heb. m OK,] a king of Judah, who as
cended the throne 849 li.c. He was killed by a con
spiracy, 820 i;.c. (See II. Kings xiv. ; II. Chronicles xxv.)

Am a-zcns, [Gr. Awafwec; Lat. AMAZ ONES,] the
name of a semi-fabulous race of female warriors, sup
posed to have lived originally on the Thermodon in
Pontus, and to have made conquests in Asia Minor and
Thrace. During the Trojan war, led by their queen, Pen-
thisile a, they fought against the Greeks. The battles
of the Amazons were favourite subjects of the ancient
Greek artists.

See " Encyclopaedia Britannica. "

Amberger, am beRG er, (CHRISTOPH,) a celebrated
German painter, born at Nuremberg about 1490, is sup
posed to have been a pupil of Plans Holbein. He
worked in oil, fresco, and distemper, excelled in per
spective, and designed well. The history of Joseph, in
twelve pictures, is called his best work. He was patron
ized by Charles V., of whom he painted a good portrait
at Augsburg in 1530. Died at Augsburg about 1570.

Am-bi-ga tus, [Fr. AMUIGAT, ON be gt ,] an an
cient and powerful king of Gaul, supposed to have reigned
about 600 or 650 i:.c.

Ambilloii. See BOUCHET, (RENE.)

Am bi-o-rix or Am-bi o-rix, written also Abrio-
rix and Ambriorix, a king of the Eburoncs, a Belgic
nation, in the time of Julius Caesar. By stratagem or
treachery he succeeded in destroying the army com
mandcd by Caesar s legates Sabinus and Cotta, 54 B.C.

See CA-.SAR, "De Bello Gallico," lib. v.

Ambiveri, am-be-va ree, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
writer, born at- Bergamo about 1592; died in 1627.

Am-biv I-us, (Lucius TURPIO,) a famous Roman
actor, lived about 175 i;.c.

Amblimont, d , doN blc moN , (Fuschemberg, fti -
shSN baiR ,) COUNT, a French naval officer, and writer on
naval tactics, was killed in battle in 1796.

Ambly, d , clGN ble , (CLAUDE JEAN ANTOINE,) a
French marquis and field-marshal, born in Champagne
in 1711. He emigrated in 1792, and served in the army
of the Prince of Conde, after he had been a royalist
member of the States-General. Died at Hamburg in

1797-

Ambodik, am bo-dik, (NESTOR MAXIMOVITCH,) an
eminent Russian physician and accoucheur, born in the
province of Pultava in 1740. Died in 1812. He is said
to have been the first who wrote on medical subjects in
the Russian language. He practised in Saint Peters
burg, and published many translations and compilations.

Amboise, (Bussv D .) See BUSSY D AMHOISE.

Amboise, d , dSN bwaz , (FRANC.OIS,) a French ad
vocate and scholar, born in Paris about 1550; died in
1620. He is chiefly known as the editor of the works of
Abelarcl, (1616.)

Amboise, d , (GEORGE,) commonly known as CAR-

c as; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; sas:; th as in MAT. (j^ = " Sec Explanations, p. 23.)

I 10

AMEILHON

niNAL D AMBOISE, a French statesman, born of a noble
family at Chaumont-sur-Loire in 1460. He became
Archbishop of Rouen in 1493, and prime minister of
Louis XII. of France at his accession in 1498, before
which he had been his faithful partisan or friend. lie
displayed great talents for administration, made reforms
in legislation and finance, and left the reputation of a
wise and virtuous minister. He remained in power
until his death in 1510. He was surnamed the "Father
of the People."

See LEGE.VDKE, "Vie du Cardinal D Amboise," 1726.

Amboise, d , (JACQUES,) [Lat. JACO KUS AMBOSIA -
NUS,J a French surgeon, brother of Frai^ois, noticed
above, born near the middle of the sixteenth century.
His father Jean was surgeon to Henry II., Charles IX.,
and Henry III. Jacques became in 1594 rector of the
university, which he restored to a flourishing condition.
Died in 1606.

Ambra, d , dam bua, (FRANCESCO,) a distinguished
Italian comic poet, born at Florence in the early part of
the sixteenth century; died in 1558. His chief works
are three comedies, "II Furto," in prose, (1560,) "La
Cofanaria," inverse, (1561,) and " J. Bernardi," in verse,

(I563-)

See GINGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d ltalie;" MAZZUCHELLI,
" Scrittori d ltaiia."

Ambrogi, am-buo jee, (ANTON MARIA,) an Italian
Jesuit, born at Florence in 1713. He was professor of
rhetoric and poetry at the Collegio Romano, and en
joyed a great reputation as teacher. Died in 1788. His
principal work is a translation of Virgil s works into
Italian verse, (4 vols., 1758-62.)

Ambrogi, degli, dil yee am-bRo jee, (DoMEXico,) a
skilful Italian painter of the seventeenth century, born
at Bologna, was a pupil of Denis Calvart and of Fran
cesco Brizio. He painted landscapes and other works,
in oil and fresco, at Bologna. He is said to have had
great facility in composition.

Ambrogio, am-bRo jo, (GIOVANNI,) a Florentine
painter and sculptor, who flourished in the fourteenth
century.

Ambrogio or Ambrosio, am-bRo se-o, (TESEO,) a
distinguished Italian Oriental scholar, born at Pavi a in
1469, became a regular canon of San Giovanni di Late-
rano at Rome. He was professor of Syriac and Chal-
dee at Bologna. His principal work is an " Introduc
tion to the Chaldee, Syriac, Armenian, and ten other
Languages," (1539.) Died in 1540.

See TIRABOSCHI, "Sturia della Letteratura Italiana."

Ambroise de Lombez, Sx bRwaz cleh lox ba , or
de La Peirie, (deh 13 pi re ,) a French devotional
writer, born at Lombez in 1708; died in 1778.

Ambrose, SAINT, sent am broz, [Lat. SANC TUS AM-
HRO SIUS ; Fr. SAINT-AMIJROISK, sax tSx bRwaz ,] one of
the Latin Fathers, was born in Gaul, at Treves, it is
supposed, about 340 A.ix His father, a Roman noble,
was then praetorian prefect of Gaul. Ambrose was Gov
ernor of Liguria (a province of which Milan was the
capital) in 374, when Auxentius, the Arian archbishop
of Milan, died. In the attempt to elect a successor, the
contest between the Catholics and the Arians was very
fierce, and the presence of the governor was necessary
to appease the tumult. He addressed them with such
eloquence and power that the assembled people declared,
with one voice, " Ambrose shall be bishop." He accepted
the office with great reluctance, but afterwards fulfilled
its duties with unequalled ability, zeal, and disinterested
ness. He sided with the Catholics, and used all his ef
forts and influence for the suppression of Arianism. In
390 the emperor Theodosius, incensed at the insolent
disobedience of some of the people of Thessalonica, or
dered an indiscriminate massacre of all the inhabitants.
Ambrose was greatly shocked at this crime ; and when,
shortly after, the emperor was about to enter the church
at Milan, the archbishop sternly forbade him. Theodosius
submitted, and, besides undergoing various other humili
ations, was at last obliged to perform public penance
Ambrose died in 397. He left, besides other works, a
treatise "De Officiis," on the duties of Christian minis
ters, which was highly esteemed, and expositions of

Scripture. He was the author of a method of singing
known as the "Ambrosian Chant."

"His Letters," says Villemain, "evince a man who,
amidst the turbulence and instability of the empire,
never had a foible nor stain on his character, whose mag
nanimity was adequate to all trials, and who in a more
auspicious period would have placed himself by his
writings in the rank of the first orators and the most
noble geniuses."

See PAULINOS, "Vita Ambrosii ;" GODEFROI HEKMANT, "Vie
de Saint-Ambroise," 1678; J. P. SILBEKT, " Leben des heiligen Am
brosius," 1841; BARONIUS, "Annales:" "Saint-Ambroise; sa Vie et
extraits de ses ecrits," Lille, 1852; " Nouvelie Biographic Generale ;"
"Encyclopaedia Britannica;" VILLEMAIN, "Saint-Ambroise," Paris,
8vo, 1852.

Am brose, (ISAAC,) an English nonconformist min
ister and writer, who died in 1664.

Ambrosini, 3.m-bRo-see nee, (BARTOLOMMEO,) a Bo-
logncse physician and writer on botany, born in 1588.
He wrote several botanical and medical treatises, and
edited four volumes of the works of Aldrovandus on
reptiles, quadrupeds, etc. Died in 1657.

Ambrosini, (GIACINTO,) a botanist, born in 1605,
was a brother of the preceding, whom he succeeded as
professor of botany at Bologna in 1657. He published
the first volume of a botanical dictionary, entitled "Phy-
tologia," etc., (1666.) Died in 1672.

Ambrosius, am-bro she-us, (AUKELIA NUS,) a British
chieftain, who lived in the fifth century, was a rival and
the successor of Prince Vortigern, whom lie defeated
about 466. According to tradition, he fought with suc
cess against the Saxon invaders under Hengist about
485 A.D.

See PALSGRAVE, " Rise and Progress of the English Common
wealth;" BEDA, "Chronicon."

Ambrosius OF CAMALDOLI, (ka-mal-do lee,) [Fr.
AMBROISE I,E CAMALDULK, Sx bRwaz leh kt mSl dul ;
Lat. AMBRO SIUS CAMALDULEN SIS,] an Italian monk,
born in the Romagna in 1378, became general of his
order in 1431. Among his -works is an account of an
official visitation of nunneries and monasteries, entitled
" Hoclceporicon." Died in 1439.

Ambrosius or Ambrose, Archbishop of Moscow,
distinguished for his learning, was born in 1708. Having
removed an image of the Virgin, to which the people
had resorted for protection from the plague, he was
charged with sacrilege, and massacred by a mob, in 1771.

Ambrozy, am-bRo zc, (WENZEL BERNHARD,) [Ger.
pron. went sel beim haRt am-bRot sc,] a Bohemian his
torical painter, born in 1723 ; died in 1806.

Ambuhl or Ambuehl, am biil, (JOIIANN LUDWIG,)
a German school-teacher and poet, born in Switzerland,
in the canton of Saint Gall, in 1750. He wrote novels
and historical dramas, which were once popular, and
among which was one entitled " Wilhelm Tell." Died
in 1800.

Amedee. See AMADEUS.

Ameen- (Amin- or Amyii-) Ahmed-er-Razee,
d-meen aii mcd-er-ra zee, written also -Ahmed-el-
Razy, (or -al-Razi,) a Persian geographer, who lived
about the close of the seventeenth century.

Ameil, % mhV or S m.Vye, ( AUGUSTS,) BARON, a French
general, born in Paris in 1775. He distinguished him
self at the capture of Munich in 1804, and was wounded
at Jena in 1806. In 1812 he served in Russia, and ob
tained the rank of general of brigade. He entered the
service of Louis XVIII. in 1814, changed sides twice
or oftener during the Hundred Days, and led a corps
of Napoleon s cavalry at Waterloo in 1815. Died in
exile in 1822.

Ameilhon, t m.VloN , (HUBERT PASCAL,) a distin
guished French scholar, born in Paris in 1730. He
wrote a " History of the Commerce and Navigation of
the Ancient Egyptians," (1766,) which caused him to
be chosen a member of the Academy of Inscriptions.
Having become a partisan of the Revolution, he was
elected a member of the CommissioiTof Monuments in
1793. He is said to have preserved from destruction
800,000 volumes which belonged to various libraries and
had been confiscated. Ameilhon was librarian of the
Arsenal from 1797 until 1811. He contributed many ar
ticles to the "Journal des Savants" and the "Journal de

a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, iV, y, short; a, e, j, o, obsairc; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon;

AMEINOCLES

1 1 1

Verdun," and some valuable antiquarian treatises to the
Memoirs of the Institute. Died in Paris in 1811.

See QUERAKIJ, "La France Litteraire;" DACIER, "Notice sur la
Vie et les Ouvrages d Ameilhon."

A-mei iio-cles, [ A/itaoK/J/c,] a Corinthian
builder, who lived about 700 i!.c.

A-meip si-as, or A-mip si-as, [ Afiaipiaf,] a comc
poet of Athens in the time of Aristophanes, over whom
he won the first prize in a dramatic contest, with his
KtjfiaaTai, 414 li.c.

Amel, a mel, (HANS,) an architect who lived in the
first half of the fifteenth century. He designed the
facade and steeple of Antwerp Cathedral.

Am el-gard , [Lat. AMELGAR DUS,] a Flemish histo
rian, who lived in the fifteenth century. He wrote Latin
histories of the reigns of Charles VII. and Louis XL

Amelia or Anielie OF GERMANY. Sec AMAI.IK.

A-me il-a, (or a-meel ya,) an English princess, daugh
ter of George III., was born in 1783. Her character is
highly commended. Died in 1810.

Amelin, d , dJrm la.V, (JEAN,) the earliest translator
of Livy into the French language, was an officer in the
army, and lived in the time of Henry II. He published
a version of the "Third Decade" in 1559.

Ameline, Sm len , (CLAUDE,) a French priest, born
in Paris in 1624, wrote on the Will, (1684.) Died in 1708.

A-me H-us or A-me ri-us, an Eclectic philosopher,
who was born in Italy and flourished in the last half of
the third century. lie was a disciple of Plotinus. His
works have not come down to us.

A-me H-us, (MARTIN,) a distinguished professor of
jurisprudence in the University of Freyburg, in Baden,
was born in 1526. He contributed greatly to the in
troduction of the Protestant religion into Baden about
1556, and was chancellor of Baden for about thirty years.
Died about 1590.

Amelot de la Houssaye, fm lo deh 13 hoo s.V,
(AHRAIIAM NICOLAS,) a French historical writer and
translator, born at Orleans in 1634. He was secretary
of embassy at Venice about 1670, and published a "His
tory of the Government of Venice," (3 vols., 1705,)
which had a high reputation. Among his other works
are "Historical, Political, Critical, and Literary Me
moirs," (2 vols., 1722.) He translated the "Prince" of
Macchiavelli, (1683,) and the first six books of the "An
nals" of Tacitus, (10 vols., 1690,) to which he added
notes, historical and political. The last six volumes
were translated by Bruys. " His translations with politi
cal notes," says Voltaire, "and his histories are very good ;
his memoirs, very faulty. He is the first writer who has
made the government of Venice known." Died in Paris
in 1706.

See MORERI, " Dictionnaire historique ;" QUKRARD, "La France
Litteraire."

Amelotte or Amelote, Sm lot , (DENYS,) a French
priest and ecclesiastical writer, born at Saintes in 1606 ;
died in 1678. He made a version of the New Testa
ment which was circulated by Louis XIV. and often re
printed.

Amelunghi, a-ma-loon gee, (GiROLAMO,) a burlesque
poet of Pisa in the sixteenth century. He wrote a poem
called "The War of the Giants," ("La Gigantea," 1566,)
one of the first productions of a kind in which the Italians
have excelled.

Amendola, a-meVdo-la, (FERRANTE,) a historical
painter of Naples, born in 1664 ; died in 1724. His chief
merit was in colouring. He failed in his effort to imitate
Luca Giordano.

Am-e-no phis or Am-me-no phis, [Gr. Ap
the name of several of the early kings of Egypt.

Ameiiophis I., a powerful king of Egypt of the
eighteenth dynasty, ascended the throne about I778l!.c.

Amenophis II. of Egypt, is reckoned as the seventh
Pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty. He is identified by
some authorities with the Memnon of the Greeks, whose
statue was one of-the seven wonders of the world.

Amenophis III., a famous king of Egypt, a grand
son of the preceding, is supposed to have built the pa
lace or temple of Luxor. His conquests arc recorded on
the obelisk which now stands near the Louvre in Paris.

Amenta, a-men ta, (NiccoiA) an Italian poet, law

yer, and philologist, born at Naples in 1659. He com
posed popular comedies, among which are " Con-
stanza," " II Forca," " La Fantc," and " La Carlotta."
His observations on the Italian language, "Delia Lin
gua nobile d ltalia," (1723,) are commended. He wrote
the Tuscan language with purity. Died in 1719.
See TIPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani ilhiEtri.

Amerbach, a mer-baK , (BASIL,) a jurist, born at Bale
in 1534, was a son of Boniface, noticed below, whom he
succeeded as professor. He left some manuscript works
on law. Died in 1591.

Amerbach, (BONIFACE,) an eminent scholar, born at
Bale in 1495, was a son of Johann, noticed below. He
taught civil law at the University of Bale for twenty
years, and was an intimate friend of Erasmus, who ap
pointed him his residuary legatee. He wrote but little.
With the aid of his brothers Basil and Bruno, he cor
rected an edition of Saint Jerome, (1516-26.) Died in
1 562. His Latin style was remarkably good.

See MELCHIOR ADAM, "Vitae Germanorum Jurisconsultorum."

Amerbach, a mer-baK , QOHANN,) an eminent Ger
man printer, born in Suabia. He settled at Bale about
1480. His principal publications are editions of Saint
Ambrose, and of Saint Augustine, (1506,) which was
printed in a new kind of type, called Saint Augustin.
Died about 1520.

Amerbach, (Virus.) See AMERPACH.

Amerighi. See CARAVAGGIO.

Amerigo Vespucci or Americus Vespucius.
See VESPUCCI.

Amerling, a mer-ling , (FRIEDRICH,) a German
painter of high reputation, born in Vienna in 1803. He
studied with Horace Vernet in Paris, and visited Italy.
He is considered to be eminently successful in portraits.
Among his works are "Dido deserted by yEneas,"
" Moses in the Desert," and a portrait of the emperoi
Francis I.

Amerpach, a mer-paK , (Virus or VEIT,) [Lat. Vi -
TUS AMERPA CHIUS,] a distinguished German scholar,
born at Wendingen, in Bavaria, about the close of the
fifteenth century, studied at Wittenberg, and was for
several years professor of philosophy at Ingolstadt. He
wrote, besides other Latin works, one " On the Soul,"
("De Anima," 1542,) and "Six Books of Natural Phi
losophy," (1548.) lie also translated some of the
speeches of Demosthenes and Isocrates, and wrote com
mentaries on Cicero and on Horace s "Art of Poetry."
Died in 1557.

Amersfoordt, a mers-foRt , or Amersvocrdt, (JA
COB.) an eminent Oriental scholar, born at Amsterdam
in 1786; died in 1824. He left "A Discourse on the
Popularity of the Christian Religion, or its Adaptation
to the Popular Mind," ("Oratio de Keligionis Christianas
Popularitate," 1818.)

See J. W. DE CRANE, "Vie d Amersvoordt," 1824.

Amersfoort, van, vSn a mers-foRt , (EVERT,) a Dutch
painter, lived in the first part of the seventeenth century.

Ames, amz, (EmvARn,) a bishop of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, born at Athens, in Ohio, in 1806.
He was educated at the Ohio University, licensed to
preach in 1830, and made a bishop in 1852. Since 1861
he has resided at Baltimore.

Ames, (FISHER,) a celebrated American orator and
statesman, born in Dcdham, Massachusetts, on the gth
of April, 1758. I lis father and grandfather were physi
cians. The former died when Fisher was only six years
old. His mother, perceiving the promise of her son, re
solved to give him a classical education, and at the age
of twelve he was sent to Harvard College. At the pre
liminary examination he was pronounced a boy of un
common attainments. He graduated in 1774, but, in
consequence of his extreme youth and the straitened
:ircumstances of his family, it was several years before
he entered upon his professional studies, the meantime
being devoted to teaching and reading the ancient and
modern classics. He became a student at law in the
office of William Tudor of Boston, and commenced
practice in his native town in 1781. Although too young
to take an active part in the Revolutionary contest, he
watched its progress with deep interest.

e as k; 9 as j; g hard; g asy; G, H, K. guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JjJ^See Explanations, p. 23.)

AMES

I 12

AMICO

He acquired distinction by several political essays
which were published in the newspapers under the sig
nature of Brutus and Camillus, and which gave proof of
practical wisdom, as well as literary merit, of a nigh or
der. They procured his election to the convention which
met in Massachusetts in 178810 ratify the Federal Con
stitution. In this convention he made, on the subject of
biennial elections, a speech characterized by extraordi
nary eloquence and power. As a member of the legisla
ture of Massachusetts, he was the principal promoter of
a law which placed the common-school system of that
State upon an improved basis. Having joined the Fed
eral party, he was elected a member of Congress in 1789
by the voters of his native district, which included Bos
ton. He continued to serve in Congress for eight years,
during which he constantly supported the administration
of Washington and took a prominent part in the de
bates on all important questions.

" He was," says Griswold, " the leader of the Federal
party in the House of Representatives during the ad
ministration of Washington, and was applauded for his
eloquence and learning, the solidity of his judgment, and
the unsullied purity of his public and private conduct."

On the 28th of April, 1796, he supported Jay s treaty
with Great Britain in an eloquent and powerful speech,
which has been preserved. At the close of this speech,
a member of the opposition moved to postpone the sub
ject, on the ground that the House was in a state of too
great excitement to come to a just decision. The health
of Ames had been for some time very delicate and de
clining, and on the retirement of Washington, about the
end of 1796, he returned to his farm in Dedham. He had
married in 1792 Frances Worthington, of Springfield.
In 1798 he wrote " Laocoon " and other essays, to arouse
the Federalists to a more vigorous opposition to the
aggressions of France. On the death of Washington,
December, 1799, he pronounced his eulogy before the
legislature of Massachusetts. He was elected president
of Harvard College in 1804, but he declined the honour,
chiefly on account of ill health. He died on the 4th of
July, 1808, leaving several sons, of whom one, Nathan
iel, acquired some reputation as an author.

In the preparation of his speeches, Fisher Ames did
little more, it is said, than draw the outlines, depending
for the language, illustrations, and modes of appeal, upon
his mental resources at the time of speaking. He was
equally distinguished for his delicate wit and brilliant
imagination; and his colloquial gifts were considered by
his acquaintances not less remarkable than his powers
as an orator. His disposition was amiable, and his
character without reproach. In person he was of me
dium height and well proportioned. His letters and
other writings were published by his son, Seth Ames,
in 2 vols., 1854.

hi
P

Ames, amz, (JOSEPH,) a British naval officer, born in
1619, distinguished himself in a battle against the Dutch
in July, 1653. Died in 1695.

Ames, (JOSEPH,) F.R.S., an English antiquary, born
at Yarmouth in 1689. In 1749 he published "Typo
graphical Antiquities : being an Historical Account of
Printing in England, with some Memoirs of our Ancient
Printers, and a Register of the Books printed by them."
An improved edition was published by W. Herbert in
3 vols., 1785-90; and another by Dr. T. F. Dibdin in
1810-19. Died in 1759.

See GOUGH, " Memoirs of Joseph Ames," prefixed to the " Typo
graphical Antiquities."

Ames, (NATHAN P.,) an American machinist and
manufacturer of fire-arms, ordnance, and cutlery, born
in 1803. He owned extensive works at Chicopee Falls
and Cabotvillc, Massachusetts, and was distinguished as
an inventor. Died in 1847.

Ames, (NATHANIEL,) a son of Fisher Ames, was the
author of several sea-sketches. Died in 1835.

Ames, ( WILLIAM,) D.D., a learned English Puritan
divine, born in Norfolk county in 1576. He emigrated
to Holland about 1612, and was professor of theohxrv at
frraneker for twelve years. He attended the Synod of

Dort in 1618. Among his works are "Marrow of Theo
logy," ("Medulla Theologiae," 1623,) and a book on
practical theology, entitled " On the Conscience and its
Authority," ("be Conscientia et ejus Jure vel Casi-
bus," 1630,) which had a high reputation even in foreign
countries. Died at Rotterdam in 1633.

See BROOK S "Lives of the Puritans."

Amestris. See AMASTKIS.

Amfreville, d , doNT r-vel , MARQUIS, a brave French
naval officer, commanded the vanguard at the battle of
La Hogue in 1692. He obtained the rank of lieutenant-
general of the naval armies, and died at an advanced
age. Two of his brothers were also distinguished naval
captains.

See QUINCY, " Histoire militairc de Louis le Grand."

Amherst, am erst, (JEFFERY or JEFFREY,) usually
called LORD AMHERST, an English general, born at River-
head, in Kent, in January, 1717. He entered the army
in 1731, was aide-de-camp to Lord Ligonier at Fontenoy
in. 1741, and became a colonel in 1756. Having ob
tained the rank of major-general in 1758, he commanded
at the capture of Cape Breton, and took Ticonderoga
from the French in 1759. He performed an important
part in the conquest of Canada in 1760, (see WOLFE,
GENERAL,) after which he was commander-in-chief of
the armies in America until 1763, when he was ap
pointed Governor of Virginia. He was made lieutenant-
general of the ordnance in 1772, received the title of
Baron Amherst in 1776, and became commander-in-chief
of the English army in 1778. This command was taken
from him in 1782, and restored in 1793. He was super
seded as commander-in-chief by the Duke of York
in 1795, and was made a field-marshal in 1796. Died in
1797.

See "Gentleman s Magazine," September, 1797.

Amherst, (WILLIAM PITT,) LORD, an English diplo
matist, born in 1773, was a nephew and heir of the pre
ceding. He was sent as ambassador extraordinary to
China in 1816, and arrived at Pekin, but, as he refused
to submit to the degrading ceremonies which were the
necessary conditions of admission to the Chinese court,
his mission was so far a failure. An account of his
journey to China was published by Clarke Abel. He
was appointed Governor-General of India in 1823, re
ceived the title of earl in 1826, and was recalled to Eng
land the same year. Died in 1857.

Amhurst, am iirst, (NICHOLAS,) an English political
and satirical writer, born at Marden, Kent, about 1702.
Having been expelled from a college of Oxford in 1719,
he published, in 1721, a witty satire against that univer
sity, in a periodical entitled "Terra: Filius." lie after
wards gained distinction as editor of "The Craftsman,"
a weekly political paper, (commenced about 1730,) which
had a very large circulation, (ten or twelve thousand
copies,) and in which Lord Bolingbroke and Pulteney
were his coadjutors. He was neglected by his political
friends when they obtained power in 1742, and died in
the same year.

See CIEBER, "Lives of the Poets."

Amici, a-mee chee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian
optician, astronomer, and natural philosopher, born at
Modena in 1784. He acquired skill in the construction
of optical instruments, especially of mirrors for tele
scopes and lenses for microscopes. About 1827 he pro
duced a dioptric or achromatic microscope which bears
his name and is highly esteemed. At the death of L.
Pons, (1835,) Amici was appointed director of the Obser
vatory of Florence, where he gained a high reputation
as an observer. He wrote memoirs on double stars, on
the diameter of the sun, etc. Died in 1863.

Amici, (TOMMASO,) an Italian sculptor of the fifteenth
century, was living in 1495.

Amico, a-mee ko, (ANTONINO,) a Sicilian priest,
historiographer to Philip IV. of Spain. Died in 1641.
He wrote several works on the history and antiquities
of Sicily.

Amicp, (BARTOLOMMEO,) an Italian Jesuit, born in
Lucania in 1562, was professor of philosophy at Naples.
He wrote a "Commentary on Aristotle," (7 vols., 1623-
48.) Died in 1649.

, o, ti, y, long; i, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, ;kort; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n3t; good; moon ;

AM1CO

AMMEN

Amico, (BERNARDINO,) an Italian monk, born at
Gallipoli, near Taranto, passed several years at Jerusa
lem from 1596 to about 1600. He published at Rome,
in 1609, descriptions and designs of sacred buildings in
the Holy Land, entitled "Trattato delle Piantc ed im-
magini dei sacri Edifici," etc. The designs were en
graved by Callot.

Amico or A-mi cus, (Dio.ME DK,) an Italian medical
writer, born at Piacenza, lived about 1600.

Amico, (FAUSTINO,) an Italian poet, born at Bassano
in 1524. He gave promise of extraordinary talents, but
died prematurely in 1558. Among his works is a beau-.
tiful Latin epistle to his friend Alessandro Campesano,
(1564.) He wrote also Italian verses.

Amico, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian Jesuit and writer on
theology, born at Cosenza in 1578; died in 1651.

Amico, (LORENZO,) an Italian monk and writer on
philology and other subjects, born at Mila/zo in 1633.

Amico, (Luioi,) an Italian diplomatist, born at Asti
m J 757 died in 1832.

Amico, (Vrro MARIA,) a learned Sicilian historian
and antiquary, born at Catania in 1693. He was for
some time professor of philosophy at Catania. He pub
lished "Sicilia Sacra," (1733,) and "Catana Illustrata,"
(4 vols., 1741.) Died in 1762.

Amiconi, a-me-ko nee, or Amigoni, a-me-go nee,
(OiTAViu,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia in 1605;
died in 1661.

Amidano,a-me-da / no,(PoMPONIO,) an Italian painter,
born at Parma in the sixteenth century, was one of the
most eminent pupils of Parmegiano. His chief work is
an altar-piece in the church of the Madonna del Quar-
tiere at Parma, which is highly praised by Lanzi. Died,
it is supposed, about 1600.

See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy."
Amigoui, a-me-go nee, or Amiconi, a-mc-ko nee,
(JACOPO,) an Italian historical painter, whose success
appears to have been greater than his merit, was born
in Venice in 1675. He worked in London about ten
years, (1729-39,) during which he painted many portraits.
His style was admired by the purchasers of pictures
more than by the critics. Among his works is the His
tory of Judith. He was court painter at Madrid when
he died in 1752. ,

See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy."
Amik, a mik or a meek , (OF BOKHARA,) a Persian
poet of the twelfth century.
Aniilcar. See HAMII.CAR.
Amin-Ahmed-el-Razy, (or -al-Razi.) See AMEEN-

AHMED-ER-RAZEE.

Amiot or Amyot, ft me-o , (JOSEPH,) a French
Jesuit and missionary, born at Toulon in 1718. He
went to China in 1750, and was invited by the emperor
to Pekin, where he remained forty-three years and
made great proficiency in the Chinese language. No
other writer of the eighteenth century has thrown so
much light on the manners and history of the Chinese.
He translated several Chinese works, wrote a "Letter
on the Genius of the Chinese Language," (1773,) and
compiled a Manchoo-Tartar-French Dictionary, (3 vols.,
Paris, 1789-90,) the first ever published. He was author
of a large part of the collection entitled " Memoirs con
cerning the History, Sciences, Arts, and Customs of the
Chinese," (16 vols., 1776-1814.) A life of Confucius by
Amiot is included in these Memoirs. Died at Pekin
in 1794.

See"I,ettresedifiantesetcurieuses,"xxviii. 158 ; STAUNTON, "Mis
cellaneous Notices relating to China;" A. RKMUSAT, " Rccherches
sur les Langues Tartares;" ERSCH und GRUBEK, "Allgemeine En-
:yklopaedie."

Amipsias. See AMEIPSIAS.

Am leth or Ham leth, an ancient and perhaps fabu
lous prince of Jutland, whose story, as recorded by.Saxo
Grammaticus, is the foundation of Shakspearc s tragedy
ot "Hamlet." He is supposed to have lived before the
Christian era.

Amling, am ling, (KARL GUSTAV,) a celebrated Ger
man designer and engraver, born at Nuremberg about
650. He worked at Munich, was patronized by the
elector Maximilian II., and excelled in portraits. He
rflso engraved historical paintings, but with less success.

He was reputed the best German engraver of his time.
Died in 1701.

Ammaeus, am-ma us, or Van Amm, vSn am, (DoMi
NIC,) a Dutch jurist, born at Lceuwarden in 1579, became
professor of law at Jena in 1602. He wrote an import
ant work on public or constitutional law, "Discursus de
Jure publico," (1617-23.) Died in 1637.

Amman, written also Ammann, iim man, (JOHANN,)
a German botanist and physician, born at S chaff hausen
in 1707, graduated in medicine at Leyden in 1729. In
1733 he became professor of botany at Saint Petersburg,
where he died in 1741 or 1742, leaving the first volume
ot an unfinished work on the plants of Russia, (1739.)
See SPREXGEL, "Geschichte des Botanik."

Amman, (/OHANN CONRAD,) a physician, native of
Schaffhausen, who settled in Holland, where he gained
a great and deserved reputation for teaching the deaf
and dumb to speak. He wrote " Surdus Loquens,"
(1692.) Died probably about 1725.

Amman, (/OHANN JACOI!,) a German surgeon, born
at a little village on Lake Zurich in 1586. lie published
a book of Travels in the Levant, (3 vols., 1618.) Died
at Zurich in 1658.

Amman or Ammon, am mon, (Josr, or JUSTUS,) a
famous Swiss engraver and designer, born at Zurich
about 1535. He became a citizen of Nuremberg about
1560, and probably passed there the rest of his life, of
which little is known. He illustrated many books with
his designs, which are exceedingly numerous. He en
graved on wood and copper, and excelled in the art of
grouping figures. His "Portraits of the Kings of France
from Pharamond to Henry III." appeared in 1576. His
wood-cuts are better than his copper-plates. -Died in
1591.

See HEINECKEN, " Dictionnaire des Artistes;" STRUTT, "Dic
tionary of Engravers."

Amman or Ammann, (PAUL,) an eminent German
botanist and physician, born at Breslau in 1634. He
obtained a chair of botany at Leipsic in 1674, and a chair
of physiology in 1682. He was addicted to paradox, and
was a severe critic. Among his works may be mentioned
his "Treatment of Deadly Wounds," (" Praxis Vulnerum
lethalium," 1690;) and "Natural Character of Plants,"
("Character naturalis Plantarum," 1676.) Died in 1691.

See HALLER, " Bibliotheca Botanica."

Ammanati, am-ma-na tee, written also Ammanato
and Ammanate, (BARTOLOMMEO,) a distinguished Ital
ian sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1511,
was a pupil of Bandinelli and Sansovino. He imitated
Michael Angelo in sculpture. He worked in Rome for
Pope Julius III., adorned the Capitol with sculptures,
and designed the court and facade of the Roman College.
At Florence he constructed the noble bridge called
Ponte della Trinita, (which is still standing,) finished the
Pitti Palace, and erected several monuments. Among
his chief works are three statues which adorn the tomb
of Sannazar at Naples, and a colossal statue of Neptune
at Florence. Died about 1590. He left a valuable work
on public buildings, etc., entitled "The City," ("La
Citta.") His wife, LAURA BATTIEERRI, was celebrated
as a poetess.

See VASARI, " Uomini illustri d ltalta ;* CICOGNARA, "Storia di
Scultura."

Ammanati, CARDINAL See PICCOLOMINI.

Ammanati, (GIOVANNI,) an able Italian sculptor,
worked at Orvieto from 1331 to 1355.

Ammanati, (LAURA Battiferri bat-te-fcr ree,) a
distinguished Italian poetess, born at Urbino about
1520. She was married in 1550 to B. Ammanati, above
noticed. Died in 1589.

Ammann. See AMMAN.

Ammar-Ibn-Yasir, am-maR Ib n ya sjr, a famous
Arab and companion of Mohammed. lie took part in
the battle of the Camel, 658 A.rx, and was killed at the
battle of Sefayn, where he commanded the cavalrv for
Alec.

Am men, (jACOii,) an American general, born in Vir
ginia, graduated at West Point in 1831. He was after
wards professor of mathematics in several colleges in
different parts of the United States. He was appointed
brigadier-general of volunteers about July, 1862.

e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^="See Explanations, p. 23.)

AMM IAN-US

114

4MONTONS

Am-mi-a mis, [ \ufuav6f,] a Greek poet, lived about
100-130 A.D.. and wrote epigrams, many of which are
found in the Greek Anthology.

Am-mi-a nus Mar-cel-ii nus, [Fr. AMMIEN MAR-
CELLIN, S me aN mf R si laN ,] a Roman historian of
great merit, born of a G~reek family at Antioch in the
early part of the fourth century. He entered the army
in his youth, took part in a campaign in the East in 350
A.D., and afterwards accompanied Julian in an expedition
against Persia. Having retired from the army, he be
came a resident of Rome, where he wrote his history
of the Roman Empire, in thirty-one books, of which
the first thirteen are lost. The whole work comprised
the period from 96 A.D. to 378 A.D. His fidelity and
impartiality are highly commended by Gibbon and
other critics. His style, however, is much inferior to
the classic models of Roman prose. He died, it is sup
posed, about 395 A.D. It has been disputed whether he
was a Christian or a heathen ; but there would seem to
be little ground for doubting that he was a pagan.

See CLAUDE CHIFFLET, "De Ammiani Marcellini Vita;" GIBBON,
"Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap, xxiii.

Ammien Marcellin. See AMMIANUS MARCELLI-

NUS.

Ammirato, am-me-ra to, (SCIPIONE,) an Italian his
torian, born at Lecce, in Naples, in 1531. After various
adventures in Venice, Rome, and Naples, he settled at
Florence in 1569, and found a patron in the Grand
Duke Cosmo, who commissioned him to write the his
tory of Florence. He became a canon in the cathedral
of Florence in 1595, and wrote a large number of works,
among which is a "Discourse on Cornelius Tacitus,"
(1594.) His most important work is a "History of
Florence," ("Istorie Fiorentine," ist vol., 1600; 2d
vol., 1641,) which is the most accurate and complete
that has been written on that subject. The Academy
Delia Crusca styled him "the modern Livy." Died at
Florence in 1601.

See DOMEXICO DE ANGELIS, "Vita di Scipione Ammirato," 1706;
TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."

Am mon [Gr. *A/z//ui&gt;"| or Ham mon, an ancient hea
then deity, worshipped in Libya, Egypt, Greece, etc., was
called Zeus Ammon by the Greeks, and Jupiter Ammon
by the Romans. There was a famous temple of Ammon
at Thebes in Egypt, and another in the oasis of Siwah,
in the Libyan Desert. He was represented in the form
of a ram, or as a human being with a ram s head.

Ammon, am mon, (Ci.K.MK.vr,) a German engraver,
born at Frankfort, lived about the middle of the seven
teenth century.

Ammon, (KARL WILHF.LM,) a Prussian writer on
horses, born at Trakehnen, Prussian Lithuania, in 1777.
He published a "Natural History of the Horse," (181^,)
and a " Complete Manual of Practical Veterinary Medi
cine," (" Vollstandiges Handbuch der praktischen Pfer-
dearzeneikunst," 2 vols., 1804-7.)

Ammon, von, fon am mon, (CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH,)
a German Protestant theologian and popular pulpit ora
tor of wide reputation, was born at Baireuth in 1766.
He was professor of theology at Go ttingen from 1 794 to
1804, in which year he obtained a chair at Erlangen. He
removed to Dresden in 1813, and became court preacher
to the King of Saxony. He was one of the first apos
tles of what is called Rationalism in German theology.
His principal work is " Development of Christianity into
the Universal Religion," (" Fortbildung des Christen-
thums zur Weltreligion," 4 vols., 1833-40.) Among his
numerous works is a " Plan (Entwurf) of a pure Biblical
Theology," (3 vols., 1802.) Died in 1820.

See JULIUS PABST, " Lebens- und Charakterumrisse C. F. von
Ammons," Dresden, 1850; BROCKHAUS, "Conversations-Lexikon;"
and "Ch. F. Ammon nach Leben, Ansichten und Wirken," Leipzig,
1850.

Ammon or Ammen, von, (FRIEDRICH AUGUST,)
a German physician, son of the preceding, was born at
Gottingen in 1799. He became professor in the medical
academy of Dresden in 1829, and royal physician, (Leib-
arzt.) He published, besides other works, "Observa
tions on Diseases of the Eye," (3 vols., 1838-41.) Died
in 1861.

Am-mo nas or Amoun, a-moon , [Gr. A[j./iuvac or

\fj.avv,\ the founder of a celebrated monastic order in
Egypt. Died about 320 A.D.

Ammonio, am-mo ne-o, written also Ammon, (AN
DREA,) [Lat. AN DREAS A.MMO NIUS,] a distinguished
Italian scholar, born at Lucca in 1477, was an intimate
friend of Erasmus. He became about 1513 Latin sec
retary to Henry VIII. of England, whose victory at
Guinegate he celebrated in a Latin poem called " Pane-
gyricus," which was praised by Erasmus. He afterwards
served Pope Leo X. as nuncio to the court of Henry VI II.,
and died in London in 1517. All his Latin poems are
lost, except one eclogue.

See MAZZUCHELLI, " Scrittori d ltalia."

Am-mo ni-us, [Gr. A/u/uwwof.] There were among
the ancients a number of eminent persons of this name :
the following are perhaps most worthy of notice :

Ammonius, a Greek grammarian, who lived at Alex
andria about 50 B.C., and wrote commentaries on Homer
and Aristophanes.

Ammonius, a Peripatetic philosopher who taught at
Athens or Delphi in the latter half of the first century.
He was a preceptor of Plutarch, and endeavoured to
reconcile the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle. Plutarch
wrote a life of him, which is not extant.

Ammonius, a Christian philosopher, who has been
confounded with Ammonius Saccas, lived at Alexandria
in the third century of our era. He is the reputed author
of a Harmony of the Gospels.

Ammonius, a Greek grammarian, was priest of a
temple in Alexandria about 380 A.D. He wrote a Dic
tionary of Greek Synonyms, which has been often printed.

Ammonius surnamed LITHOT OMUS, a celebrated
surgeon of Alexandria, supposed to have lived in the
third century B.C. He was the first who contrived a
method of breaking the calculus in the bladder when it
was too large to be extracted through the opening made
by incision ; from which improvement in lithotomy he
received his surname.

Ammonius surnamed SAC CAS, (because in early
life he was a porter, and earned a livelihood by carrying
sacks,) the founder of that school of Eclectic philosophy
commonly known as New Platonism, was a native of
Alexandria, in Egypt, where he died 241 A.D. He was
the son of Christian parents, but preferred the heathen
religion. Among his numerous disciples were Origen,
LMiginus, and Plotinus. He left no writings, and ex
acted from his disciples a promise not to divulge the
mysteries which he taught.

See RITTER, " History of Philosophy ;" DEHAUT, " Essai his-
torique sur la Vie d Ammonius Saccas," 1836.

Ammonius, son of Hermias, a Greek philosopher,
born at Alexandria, lived at Athens in the last half of
the fifth century after Christ. He wrote valuable com
mentaries on Aristotle and Porphyry, and belonged to
the school of New Platonists.

Am/iion, a son of David, King of the Jews, was slain
by Absalom. (See II. Samuel xiii.)

Amo, a mo, (ANTONY WILLIAM,) a learned negro,
born in Guinea about 1702. He studied at Halle, be
came a classical scholar, and published a work " On the
Law of the Moors," (" De Jure Maurorum," 1729.) He
was afterwards a councillor of state at the court of Ber
lin. On the death of his patron, the Duke of Brunswick,
he returned to Africa. He was seen by H. Gallaudet
at Axoom, (Axum,) in Abyssinia, in 1753.

See GREGOIRE, "De la Litterature des Negres."

Amolon, S mo loN , or Amulon, it mU lox , a French
ecclesiastic, who became Archbishop of Lyons in 841
A.D. He wrote a treatise against the Jews. Died in
852.

Am-O-me tus, [ A/zw^rof,] an ancient Greek author,
wrote an account of a voyage on the Nile, of which some
fragments are extant.

Amon, a mon, a son of Manasseh, King of Judah, suc
ceeded to the throne of his father, and was killed by
his own servants, who conspired against him. (See II.
Kings xxi. 19-23 ; also II. Chronicles xxxiii. 21-24.)

Amontons, t moN toN , (GUILLAUME,) an ingenious
French natural philosopher and mechanician, born in
Paris in 1663. He learned architecture, and .vas em

it, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;

AMPHIARAUS

ployed on several public works. He laboured with suc
cess to improve the barometer, thermometer, and hy
grometer, and wrote a treatise on tho.se instruments,
(1695.) "He was the real inventor of the telegraphic
art," says Biot, " as it is practised at the present day,"
(i.e. 1811.) He proposed that signals should be trans
mitted from station to station by operators whose vision
was aided by the telescope ; but his plan was not executed
until fifty years later. Died in 1705.

Amor, the Roman god of love. See CUPID.

Amoretti, a-mo-ret tee, (CARLO,) a meritorious Ital
ian naturalist, writer, and translator, born at Oncglia,
near Genoa, in 1740 or 1741. He translated Winckel-
mann s "History of Ancient Art" into Italian, (1779,)
wrote an excellent biography of Leonardo da Vinci,
(1784,) and became one of the keepers of the Ambrosian
Library, at Milan, in 1797. He was a member of the
Italian Institute. Amoretti is author of an important
work on the geography and natural history of Lakes
Como, Maggiore, and Lugano, and the adjacent districts,
entitled "Journey from Milan to the Three Lakes,"
(" Yiaggio da Milano ai tre Laghi," 1794.) He trans
lated into French the voyages of Pigafetta and Malclo-
naclo. Died in 1816.

See LOMBARDI, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."

Amoretti, (MARIA PEREGRINA,) a learned Italian
lady, born at Oneglia in 1756. She wrote a work "On
the Right of Dowry among the Romans," ("De Jure
Dotium apud Romanos.") Died in 1787.

Amoreux, i mo ruh , (PIERRE JOSEPH,) a French
physician and miscellaneous writer, born at Beaucaire
about 1740. He wrote several works on natural history
and rural economy, which were received with favour.
Died in 1824.

Amoros, a-mo r6s, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish colonel,
born at Valencia in 1769, was the first who introduced
gymnastic education into France. During the reign of
Joseph Bonaparte he was councillor of state, minister of
police, etc. He afterwards became an exile in France,
and established a gymnasium with success. In 1831 he
was appointed director of a normal gymnasium in Paris.
Died in 1843.

Amorosi, a-mo-ro see, (ANTONIO,) an Italian painter,
born near Ascoli, lived in the first half of the eighteenth
century. He painted humorous subjects, which the
Italians call Bambocciate, and displayed much talent for
satire.

See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."

Amort, a moRt, (EusEBius,) a German theologian
and monk, born near Tolz, in Bavaria, in 1692. He
wrote a " History of Indulgences," (1735,) and attacked
prevailing superstitions in a work "On Revelations,
Visions, and Apparitions," (1744.) Died in 1775.

See SAVIOLI-CORBELLI, " Ehrendenkmal E. Amorts," 1777.

Am o-ry, (THOMAS,) an eccentric English writer, a
zealous Unitarian, was born about 1690. He published
memoirs of several ladies of Great Britain, (1755,) and
is supposed to have represented his own character and
experience in "The Life of John Buncle, Esq. ; contain
ing Various Observations and Reflections made in Va
rious Parts of the World," (2 vols., 1756-66.) Died in
1788.

Amory, (THOMAS,) a distinguished Presbyterian di
vine, born at Taunton, England, in 1700. He was or
dained in 1730, and became principal tutor of a dissent
ing academy at Taunton in 1738. In 1759 he removed
to London, and in 1766 became sole pastor of the chapel
at Old Jewry, where he had preached seven years as
colleague of Dr. Chandler. He published, besicfes other
;vorks, two volumes of sermons, (1758, 1766,) and
" Grove s System of Moral Philosophy, revised, cor
rected, and improved," (1749.) Died in 1774.

Amos, a mos, [Heb. D1D&gt; ,] one of the minor He
brew prophets, lived about 800 u.C. He was a herdsman
and gatherer of sycamore-fruit. His book is the third
in order of position among the minor prophets, and
c jntains several eloquent and admirable passages.

Amondrou, t moo dRoo , (ANTOINE,) a French
architect, born at Dole in 1739 ; died in 1812. He built
some nalaces in Warsaw.

Amour, (SAINT.) See SAINT-AMOUR.

Ampach auf Griinfelden, (or G-ruenfelden,) von

fon am paK owf gRtin fel den, (JoiiANN GEORG,) a Ger
man physician, born in 1784, wrote several veterinary
treatises. Died in 1832.

Am-pe H-us, (Lucius,) a Roman, known only as the
author of a work called " Book of Memory," (" Liber
Memorialis,") which was edited by Salmasius. It is a
compendium of history, geography, etc.

Ampere, 6N T/ paiR , (ANDR MARIE,) a celebrated
French mathematician and natural philosopher, born at
Lyons on the 2Oth of January, 1775, was the son of a mer-
cfiant. He learned mathematics in early youth at home
without a teacher, and eagerly read the poems of Virgil
and Horace in the original. He married Julie Carron
in 1799. In 1802 he attracted the public attention by a
curious work " On the MathematicalTheory of Gaming."
In 1805 he obtained by the favour of Delambre the
place of repetitair of analysis in the Polytechnic School,
Paris. He became inspector-general of the university
in 1808, professor of analysis in the Polytechnic School
in 1809, and a member of the Institute in 1814.

In 1820 he announced the remarkable discoveries in
electro-magnetism which constitute, perhaps, his chief
title to celebrity. He demonstrated the influence of a
spiral wire conducting a galvanic current, in magnet
izing a needle, proved that two voltaic conductors at
tract each other when the currents have the same direc
tion and repel each other when- the currents flow in
opposite directions, and inferred from his experiments
that the phenomena of natural magnetism depend on
electrical currents which constantly pass around the
earth from east to west. These results, which he ob
tained by the application of the most difficult parts of
mathematical analysis, were communicated to the Acad
emy of Sciences, in several papers, in the autumn of
1820. "The vast field of physical science," says Arago,
"perhaps never presented so brilliant a discovery con
ceived, verified, and completed with such rapidity."

Ampere gave the name of Electro-Dynamics tto his
new science. In 1822 he published a "Collection of
Observations on Electro-Dynamics." His theory and
discoveries in this science were more amply developed
in his work entitled " Theory of Electro-Dynamic Phe
nomena deduced from Experiments only," (" Theorie
des Phenomenes electro-dynamiques uniquement deduite
de FExperience," 1826.)

Among his later works is a treatise on the undulatory
theory of light, (" Memoire sur la Determination de la
Surface courbe des Ondes lumineuses, etc.," 1828 ;) also,
an " Essay on the Philosophy of the Sciences , or Ana
lytic Exposition of a Natural Classification of all Human
Knowledge." ("Essai sur la Philosophic des Sciences, ou
Exposition analytique d une Classification naturelle de
toutes les Connaissances humaines," 1834.)

He wrote numerous treatises on optics, natural his
tory, etc., which were printed in the " Memoires" of the
Institute, and in other journals. He was a Fellow of the
Royal Society of London. Died in Paris in 1836. He
is said to have resembled La Fontaine in good nature,
(bonhomie,} simplicity, and absence of mind.

See ARAGO, " E"loge d Ampere ;" SAINTE-BEUVE et M. LITTR,
notice in the "Revue cles Deux Mondes," February, 1837; QUETE-
LET, "Notice sur M. Ampere," 1836; Louis DE LOMENIE, "Gale-
rie des Contemporains illustres."

Ampere, QEAN JACQUES,) a son of the preceding,
was bom at Lyons in August, i8co. He devoted him
self to literary pursuits, and obtained access to the select
society which met at the salon of Madame Recamier.
In 1830 he became an assistant or substitute of Ville-
main as professor at the Sorbonne, and in 1833 suc "
j ceeded Andrieux as professor of French literature at
the College of France. He was admitted into the Acad
emy of Inscriptions in 1842, and into the French Acad
emy in 1847. Among his works are "The Literary
History of France before the Twelfth Century," (" His-
toire litteraire de la France avant le douzieme Siecle,"
3 vols., 1839,) and a collection of charming articles called
" Litterature et Voyages," (1833.) Died in 1864.
Sue QUERARD, " La France Litteraire."
Am-phi-a-ra us, [Gr. A^mpao?,] a famous soothsayer

as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^ = See Explanations, p. 23.)

AMPH1CRATES

116

AMU RATH

;md hero of Argos. He took part in the Argonautic
expedition, and married Eriphyle, who, bribed by the

fatal necklace of Harmonia, persuaded him against his
will to join in the expedition of the Seven against Thebes.
Tradition adds that the earth opened and swallowed
him, and that he was afterwards worshipped as a hero.

Am-phic ra-tes, [Gr. A/^i,vpur?/f,] an Athenian ora
tor, who nourished about 70 li.c. For some unknown
cause he was banished from Athens, and went to Asia,
where he died.

Am-phic ty-oii, [Gr. A^p jcrvdir,} a fabulous king of
Attica, was a son of Deucalion, (or, as some say, an
autochthon.) He was expelled from his kingdom and
succeeded by Erichthonius. He is supposed to have
lived about 1490 K.C.

Am-phi-lo -ehi-us, [Giv A^Ao^of; Fr. AMPHILOQUE,
ON fe lok ,] a bishop of Iconium, and a zealous opponent
of Arianism, was born in Cappaclocia. About 383 A.I).
he went to the court of the emperor Theodosius, and
instigated him to issue a decree prohibiting the public
assemblies of the Arians. Died about 395 A.U. His
works are nearly all lost.

Ani-phi on, [Gr. Auoiuv,] a Theban prince, who re
ceived a golden lyre from Mercury, and cultivated music
with such success that he built the walls of Thebes by
the sounds which he drew from that instrument, the
stones arranging themselves obsequiously at his will.
The meaning of this fable appears to be that by his elo
quence and persuasive- manners he prevailed upon his
rude and hitherto intractable subjects to build the walls
of their city. He married the famous Niobe.

Amphi / on [ Auoiuv] OF CNOS SUS, a Greek statuary,
who lived about 420 B.C.

Am phis, ["A/^f,] an Athenian comic poet, who was
i contemporary of Plato. His works are not extant.

Am-phis tra-tos, [ Aju0&lt;rrparof,] a Greek sculptor,
mentioned by Pliny as the author of a good statue of
Callisthenes. He lived about 320 is.c.

Am-plii-tri te, [ Appirpinj,] a Nereid of the Greek
mythology, represented as the wife of Neptune, and
mother of Triton. She was sometimes styled by the
poets the goddess of the sea.

Am pi-us, (TITUS FLAVIANUS,) a Roman general,
who fought for Vespasian against Vitellius about 70 A.D.

Anipsing, amp sing, or Amp zing, (JoiiN ASSUE-
RUS,) a Dutch medical writer, born in 1559 ; died in 1642.

Ampsiiig, (SAMUEL,) a Dutch poet, a son of the pre
ceding, lived in the early part of the seventeenth century.

Ampudia, am-poo de-a, (PEDRO DE,) a Mexican gen
eral, who obtained that rank in 1840. He commanded
an army which besieged Campeachy in 1842-43. In
1846 he was in command at Monterey, which was be
sieged by General Tayloi, and was taken prisoner in
September of that year.

Amreeta. See AMRITA.

Am ri-ta, [Hindoo pron. um n-ta, from a, priva
tive, and mrita, "dead," also "death,"] sometimes
written, but less correctly, Amreeta, the name given
by the Hindoos to the water of immortality which was
produced by the churning of the ocean. (See KURMA-
VATARA.) The term Amrita or Amrit is also applied to
the food as well as to the drink of the gods, and hence
to any delicious drink.

Amroo, Amru, or Amrou, am roo,* or, more fully,
Amroo-Ibn-Al-Aas, (or -Ass,) Tb n al ass, (i.e. " Am
roo the son of Al-Aas,") a famous Arabian general, who
conquered Egypt in the reign of the caliph Omar, about
640 A.D. He was afterwards governor of Egypt until
Omar s death. In the civil war which followed the death
of Othman he fought against Alee. Died in 663 A.D.

See IRVING, "Mahomet and his Successors," vol. ii.; ADUI.FEDA,
"Annales Moskmici;" GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire," chap li.; WEIL, "(^schichte der Chalifen," vol. i.

Amrool-kays, Amrulkais, or Amroulcays, am -
rool-kis , written also Amrolkais, a distinguished
Arabian poet, who lived about 600 A.n. He was author
of one of the Mo allakat, poems suspended oa the Kaaba
at Mecca.

Amrou or Amru. See AMROO.

* See remarks on Oriental names, in the Introduction.

Amr-Seebawayh or Amr-Sibawayh, am r see -
ba-wln , the greatest of the Arabian grammarians, lived
at Bagdad in the reign of Haroun-al-Raschid.

Amsdorf, von, ton ams doRf, (NIKOLAUS,) a Ger
man Reformer, born near Wurzen, in Saxony, in 1483.
He became professor of divinity at Wittenberg in 1511,
and a zealous adherent of Luther, whom he accompa
nied to the Diet of Worms in 1521. He was appointed
superintendent and minister at Saint Ulrich in Magde
burg in 1524, and Bishop of Naumburg in 1542. Ams
dorf took part in Luther s translation of the Bible, and
wrote numerous polemical treatises on theology. Died
in 1565.

See MELCIIIOR ADAM, "Vitas Theologorum Germanorum."

Ainsler, ams ler, (SAMUEL,) an excellent German
engraver, born in Switzerland in 1791. He was profes
sor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, and en
graved many pieces after Michael Angelo, Raphael, and
Thorwaldsen. Among his works is a " Holy Family"
of the second, and "The Triumph of Alexander" of the
last-named artist. Died at Munich in 1849.

Amstel, (CoKNELis PLOOS VAN.) See PLOOS.

Amstel, G-ijsbrecht or Gysbrecht van, gls breKt
or ins bKeivT vSn am stel, a Dutch nobleman of the
thirteenth century, infamous as the betrayer of Floris
V., Count of Holland, in 1296. (See FLORIS V.) The
odium of this crime contributed much to the ruin of the
power of the Dutch aristocracy.

Amtlior, am toR, (CiiRisTOPH HEINRICII.) a German
jurist, born at S toll berg in 1678. He entered the service
of Denmark, and was made a counsellor of justice at
Copenhagen about 1718. He wrote some successful
political tracts and works on law. Died in 1721.

Amulio, a-moo le-o, or Da Mula, da moo la, (MARC-
ANTONIO,) CARDINAL, an Italian scholar, born at Venice
in 1505. He gained the confidence of Pope Pius IV.,
who employed him in important commissions, and made
him a cardinal in 1561. He wrote Latin poems and
orations, and other works of some merit, nearly all of
which remain in manuscript. Died in 1570.

A-mu/li-us, King of Alba, was a younger brother of
Numitor, whom he dethroned about 714 B.C. (See
ROMULUS.)

Amurath, a-moo-rSt , or Moorad, (Mourad or
Murad,) moo rful , (written also Amurat, Amurad,
and Murad,) I., the first of the Ottoman sultans who
made conquests in Europe, succeeded his father Or-
khan in 1360. He took Adrianople in 1362, and made it
the capital of his European dominions. During a reign
of twenty-nine years his arms were everywhere crowned
with success. .A formidable insurrection having at length
broken out in Scrvia, he hastened to meet this new
danger, accompanied by his son, the famous Bayazeed,
(Bajazet,) surnamed Ilderim, or "the lightning." His
army was inferior in numbers to that of the insurgents ;
but, yielding to the ardour of Bayazeed, he resolved at
once to give battle. After a long and terrible conflict
on the plain of Kossovo, the forces of Amurath gained a
complete victory. The sultan rejoiced all the more over
this success because, as the Moslem historians inform
us, he had dreamed the night before that he met his
death from the weapon of an assassin. While he lingered
on the field of battle, one of the bodies on which lie
chanced to tread suddenly started up and plunged a
dagger into the heart of Amurath, who died a few
moments afterwards, (June 15, 1389,) aged sixty-three
years. Amurath I. has the distinction of having formed
the Janissaries (who had been first levied by his father
Orkhan) into a thoroughly organized and disciplined
body of troops.

See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Vox HAMMER, " Histoire
del Empire Ottoman."

Amuratli or Moorad (Murad) II., born about

i 1405, succeeded his father Mahomet I. in 1422, His

I reign was marked by various vicissitudes of fortune.

I At one time (1422) he threatened Constantinople with

i a formidable army. In 1429 he took Thessalonica from

the Venetians, and in 1433 took possession of Vanina

?.nc! razed its fortifications to the ground. In 1442 the

famous Huniades defeated the troops of Amurath in two

successive battles, in the latter of which the Tirks lost

AMU RATH

ANACHARSIS

two hundred banners and five thousand prisoners, in
cluding their general-in-chief. In the following year
Huniades gained in rapid succession several victories
over the Ottoman forces. In one engagement in which
the sultan himself was present, Amurath lost six thou
sand men, so that he was compelled to sue for peace.
A treaty of peace for ten years was signed between the
sultan and the King of Hungary, but it was soon after
broken by the latter at the instigation of the papal legate
Julian. This want of good faith on the part of the
Christians was signally avenged the same year by the
defeat of the Hungarians near Varna, and the death of
Vladislaus, their king, who was unhorsed by Amurath
himself and sjain by a janissary. Again in 1448 the
Hungarians under Huniades suffered a total defeat in
the battle of Kossovo, (October, 1448.) This engage
ment lasted three days ; at last Huniades fled, and his
troops were almost annihilated. Twice during his reign
Amurath II. abdicated the supreme power and sought
in retirement that peace of mind which he could not
find on the throne ; but in both instances he was speed
ily recalled by the wishes of his people to the post which
he had so lately left. He died in 1451, leaving behind
him the reputation of an able, just, and humane ruler.
He was succeeded by his son, Mahomet II., the con
queror of Constantinople.

See " Nouvelle Biographic Ganerale;"
de 1 Empire Ottoman."

VON HAMMER, " Histoire

Amurath or Moorad (Murad) III, born in 1545,
succeeded his father, Selim II., in 1574. On the first day
of his reign he caused his five brothers to be strangled .
He was weak and sensual as well as cruel ; but his mind
was not altogether without taste and cultivation. Died
in 1595.

Sec "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" VON HAMME.R, "Histoire
ie 1 Empire Ottoman."

Amurath or Moorad (Murad) IV., born about
1610, succeeded his uncle Mustafa in 1623. In 1638 he
took Bagdad, which was thenceforward incorporated with
the Ottoman Empire : this was the only important event
of his reign. He had a vigorous, athletic frame, but a
feeble, passionate, and tyrannical disposition ; and these
evil traits in his character seemed to increase with his
years. He was almost continually intoxicated ; in a fit
of drunken rage he would sometimes rush from his
palace into the street, sword in hand, killing all whom
he met ; at other times he would amuse himself by
shooting with his bow from the palace-windows those
who happened to be passing beneath. Happily for his
people, he died (1640) before he had completed his thir
tieth year. He has been styled "the Turkish Nero."

See " Xouvc!le Biographic Generale;" VON HAMMER, "Histoire
de 1 Empire Ottoman."

Amussat, s nui st , (JEAN Zulema zii la mi ,) a

French surgeon, bom in Deux-Sevres in 1796.
vented several instruments, among which

He in-
probe

used in lithotrity, and published a number of treatises.
His memoir on "The Torsion of Arteries" (1829) ob
tained a prize of the Institute. Died in 1856.

Amy, fine , a French advocate of Aix, wrote some
interesting works on rivers and fountains, among which
is " Observations experimentales sur les caux cles rivieres
de Seine, dc Marne, etc.," (1749.) Died in 1760.

Amyii or Aniin. See ALAMEEN.

A-myii tas, [Or. A/wvrac,} the name of three kings
of Macedonia between 510 and 330 u.c. Also, a Mace
donian general in the service of Alexander the Great.

Amyntas I., King of Macedonia, began to reign
about 510 r,.c. He presented earth and water to the
Persian ambassadors in token of submission to the su
premacy of Darius.

Amyntas II. of Macedonia, ascended the throne in
394 B.C. He was defeated in battle by the Illyrians, and
recovered his kingdom by the aid of the Thessalians.
He afterwards strengthened himself by an alliance with
Sparta. Died in 370 K.C., leaving three sons, Alexander,
Perdiccas, and Philip called the Great.

Amyntas III. was a grandson of the preceding, and
a son of Perdiccas. He was an infant at the death of
his father in 359 j;.c., and was the lawful heir to the
throne which was usurped by his uncle Philip. He was

put to death on the charge of a conspiracy agaii.st Alex
ander a short time before the latter invaded Asia.

Amyntas, one of the generals of Alexander the
Great. During the campaign in Asia he conducted re
inforcements from Macedonia to the army at Babylon.
About 330 B.C. he was tried on a charge of complicity
in a plot alleged to have been formed by his friend Phi-
lotas, and acquitted.

Amyntas, son of Antiochus, a Macedonian officer
who was in the service of Persia when Alexander in
vaded that country. He commanded some Greek auxil
iaries that fought for Darius at Issus, 333 B.C., after
which he led an expedition against Egypt, then in the pos
session of the Persians. After he had gained a victory
near Memphis, he was surprised by the Persians and
killed, about 330 B.C.

Amyntas, a king of Galatia, fought for Antony at
Philippi, and against him at the battle of Actium, 31
B.C. Died about 30 B.C.

Amyntianus, a-min-she-a nus, [ A/j.vvnav6e,] a Greek
author, lived about 170 A.D., and wrote a " Life of Alex
ander the Great," which is lost.

Amyot, t me-o , (JACQUES,) a French writer and
translator of great merit, born at Melun in 1513. He
became professor of Greek and Latin at Boufgcs about
1540, and was appointed tutor to the sons of Henry II.
in 1558. He was made grand almoner of France on
the accession of Charles IX. in 1560, and Bishop of
Auxerre in 1570. In 1559 he published an excellent
translation of Plutarch s " Lives," which is especially
celebrated as a model of French style. He also trans
lated from the Greek seven books of Diodorus Siculus,
(1554,) Longus s romance of "Daphnis and Chloe,"
(1559,) and the " Moral Treatises of. Plutarch." Died at
Auxerre in 1593. Amyot is ranked among the prose
writers who have contributed most to the perfection of
the French language.

See De THOU, "Histoire," book viii. ; NICERON, " Metnoires;"
"Eloge d Amyot," in the "Memoires de PAcademie Francaise ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Gdnerale;" BAYLE, "Historical and Critical
Dictionary."

Amyot, (JOSEPH.) See AMIOT.

Am/yot, (THOMAS,) an English antiquary, born at
Norwich about 1775. He embraced the legal profes
sion, and became private secretary to Mr. Windham
while the latter was secretary at war in 1806. In 1812
he published the speeches of Windham, with a short
notice of his life. He contributed several treatises to
the " Archccologia," and was for many years secretary
to the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1850.

Amyraut, t me ro , [Lat. AMYRAL DUS,] (Mosss.) a
distinguished French Protestant divine and writer, born
at Bourgueil, in Anjou, in 1596. He became professor of
divinity at Saumur in 1633. In order to promote union
among the Protestant churches, he wrote a Latin " Treat
ise on Secession from the Roman Church, and on Peace
among the Evangelical Churches," and was, in conse
quence, involved in a controversy with certain Calvin-
istic divines by his attempt to explain Calvin s views
on predestination, which he wished to reconcile with the
doctrine of universal grace. He
works in French and Latin, among
Morality," (6 vols.,) a work of much merit. He was
esteemed for his talents and worth by both Catholics and
Protestants. Died in 1664.

Sec CHARLES E. SAJGEV, " M. Amyraut, sa Vie et ses Merits,"
1849; BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary."

Amyrtaeus, am-jr-tee us, [Gr. Aftvpraiof ; Fr. AMYR-
TEE, i meR ta ,] King of Egypt, obtained the throne about
450 B.C. by a revolt against the King of Persia.

Anacaoua, a-na-ka-o na,surnamed GOLDEN FLOWER,
r as the wife of Caonabo, a cacique of Hayti when Co-
umbtis discovered that island in 1492. She was put to
death by Ovando, the Spanish governor.

See IRVING S " Life of Columbus."

An-a-ehar sis, [Gr. ^VU^KJLC ,} a Scythian philoso
pher, contemporary and friend of Solon. He was, it is
said, the only barbarian admitted to the citizenship of
Athens. He was reckoned by some writers among the
Seven Wise Men of Greece. On his return to his native
country he was shot dead with an arrow by the Scythian

was author of many

which is "Christian

as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

Explanations, p. 23.)

ANACLETUS

118

ANAXAGORAS

king for performing the Greek rites to the goddess Cy-
bele. Some of his witty sayings have been preserved by
Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, and Lucian.

An-a-cle tus, [Fr. ANACLET, i nt cli ,] sometimes
called Cletus, the second or third bishop of Rome, was
a native of Athens. He is variously represented as the
successor or predecessor of Clement. Died, it is sup
posed, about 100 A.D.

Anacletus THE ANTIPOPE, was elected by a part of
the cardinals in 1 130, and disputed the claim of Innocent
II. to the popeclom. Supported by the populace of
Rome, he maintained possession of that city until his
death in 1138, though his rival was recognized by nearly
all the European powers.

See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes."

A-iiac re-on, [Gr. Ava/cpewj;,] a celebrated Greek
amatory lyric poet, born at Teos, in Ionia, about 560 B.C.
He passed many years in the prime of his life at the
court of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, to which it is sup
posed he was invited about 540. After the death of
Polycrates, whose bounty he had largely enjoyed, he re
moved to Athens, which he left probably about 514 B.C.
According to some accounts, he attained the age of
eighty-five. His death is said to have been caused by a
grape-stone or dried grape, by which he was choked.
He left odes and songs on love and wine, which are re
garded as models of that species of poetry named from
him Anacreontic ; also elegies, epigrams, etc. Numer
ous fragments of his poems are extant.

See MULLER, "Histoire de la Litterature de 1 ancienne Grace ;"
BODE, "Geschichte der lyrischen Dichtkunst der Hellcnen;" Vos-
sius, "De Poetis Graecis."

An-a-dy-om e-ne, [Gr. Avadvo/tevri,] (i.e. the god
dess "rising up out" of the sea,) a surname given to
Venus, in allusion to the story of her origin.

An-a-fes tus or Anafesto, a-na-feVto, (PAOLUCCIO,
pow-loot/cho,) the first Doge of Venice. Died in 717 A.D.

A-na-i tis or Anahid, [Gr. Avairif,] a goddess wor
shipped in Armenia and Asia Minor, was supposed to be
identical with the Greek Aphrodite or the Persian god
dess of nature.

A rian, (Ben David,) a Jewish rabbi of the eighth
century, is represented as the restorer of the Karaite
doctrines and defender of the pure law.

Anania, a-na ne-a, (GIOVANNI LORENZO,) a learned
Italian of the sixteenth century, born at Taverna, in Ca
labria. Among other works, he wrote a treatise on the
nature of demons, (1581 ; 5th edition, 1669.)

Anania, d , da-na ne-a, or Anagny, d , da-nan yee,
written also Agnany, (JOANNES,) an Italian jurist and
canonist. Died in 1458.

An-a-m as or Hananiah, called Sha drach, one
of three Hebrew captives whom the King of Babylon
ordered to be thrown into a fiery furnace. ^See Daniel i.
and iii.)

Ananias, a Jewish general, was a son of Onias who
erected a Hebrew temple at Heliopolis, in Egypt. He
and his brother Chelcias commanded an army which
Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, sent into Judea against her
son, Ptolemy Lathyrus, in 103 B.C.

Ananias, a Jew, who was appointed high-priest at
Jerusalem about 45 or 50 A.D. He was a party to the
persecution of the Apostle Paul, and appeared as his
accuser before Felix. (See Acts xxiii. 2 ; xxiv. i ; xxv. 2.)
He was killed by robbers, or, according to some ac
counts, by the seditious Jews, about 66 A^D.

See JOSEPHUS, "Jewish Antiquities."

Ananias, one of the primitive Christians, was a resi
dent of Damascus, and eminently devout. He was sent
by the Lord, who appeared to him in a vision, to restore
sight to Saul of Tarsus, who had just been converted.
(See Acts ix. 10-18.)

A-nan^ta, | Hindoo pron. lin-iin ta from an, priva
tive, and anta, "end,"] a name signifying "without end,"
sometimes applied to the great serpent Sesha, the svm-
bol of eternity. (See SESHA.)

A-na pi-u s and Am-phin o-mus, two brothers, who
lived at Catania before the Christian era and acquired
celebrity by saving their parents from an eruption of
Mount Etna.

Anar. See NORVI.

Aiiasco, de, da an-yas ko, QUAN,) a Sevillian officer,
who served under Hernando de Soto in his expedition
into Florida in 1539-43.

Auassagora. See ANAXAGORAS.

Anastase. See ANASTASIUS.

Anastasia, an-as-ta she-a, [Fr. ANASTASIE, t nis -
tt ze ,] SAINT, the wife of Publius, a pagan. After his
death, having made a public profession of Christianity,
she suffered martyrdom in 303 A.D., during the reign of
Diocletian.

Anastasius, an-as-ta/she-us, [Gr. AvaaTuoioc ; Fr.
ANASTASE, i nis taV/,] I., a Tlyzantine emperor, born at
Dyrrachium (now Durazzo) about 430 A.D. On the death
of the emperor Zeno, in 491, his widow, the empress
Ariadne, gave her hand in marriage to Anastasius, and
raised him to the throne. He persecuted or differed
with the orthodox, who rose in arms, and, under the
command of Vitalianus, defeated his army in 514. Died
in 518 A.D., and was succeeded by Justin I.

See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."

Anastasius II., Emperor of the East, succeeded
Philippicus by election in 713 A.D. The army which he
sent against the Arabs revolted, proclaimed Theodosius
emperor, and captured Constantinople. Anastasius was
deposed in 716, and put to death by order of Leo III.
about 720 A.D.

See GIBHON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."

Anastasius, Patriarch of Constantinople, was raised
to that dignity by Leo about 730 A.D. He favoured the
Iconoclasts. The Catholic writers represent him as a
disgrace to his profession. Died in 753 A.D.

Anastasius, an-as-ta shc-us, [Fr. ANASTASE, f nts -
tftz ,] I., POPE, a Roman by birth, succeeded Siricius
about 398 A.D. He was strongly opposed to the doc
trines of Origen. Died in 402, and was succeeded by
Innocent I.

Anastasius II., a native of Rome, was elected pope
in 496, in place of Gelasius I. He wrote a letter to
Clovis, King of the Franks, on his conversion to Chris
tianity. Died in 498 A.D.

Anastasius III. became pope after the death of
Sergius III. in 911. Died in 913, and was succeeded by
Lando.

Anastasius IV., a native of Rome, was elected pope
in 1153, as successor to Eugenius III. He is repre
sented as wise and virtuous. He died at an advanced
age in 1154, and was succeeded by Adrian IV.

Anastasius surnamed BIBUOTHECA RIUS, (i.e. "Li
brarian,") a Roman priest of the ninth century, trans
lated from Greek into Latin several works, among which
is "Historia Ecclesiastica," composed chiefly of extracts
from Nicephorus and Syncellus. Died probably about

890 A.D.

Anastasius, surnamed SINAITA (sT-na-T ta) from
having been a monk on Mount Sinai, became Bishop or
Patriarch of Ahtioch in 561 A.D. He was a zealous de
fender of the orthodox Catholic faith, for which he was
expelled from his see by Justin II. in 570 ; but he was
restored by the emperor Maurice in 593. Died in 599 A.D.

Anastasius, SAINT, called "the Apostle of Ilun-
ary," was born in 954 A.D., and died in 1044.

An-a-to li-us, [Fr. ANATOLE, firS tol ,] an eminent
philosopher of Alexandria, lived in the latter part of the
third century. He opened a school in Alexandria, and
was the first Christian who taught the philosophy of
A ristotle. He became Bishop of Laodicea about 270 A.D.

Anatolius, a Platonic philosopher, contemporary with
the preceding, was a master of lamblichus and friend of
Porphyry. A fragment of work, entitled " Sympathies
and Antipathies," is ascribed to him.

See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Grxca."

Anatolius, a Greek jurist, born at Berytus, was em
ployed by Justinian in the compilation of the Digest,
about 530 A.D.

An-ax-ag o-ras, [Gr. M a^ayojmr , Fr. ANAXAGORE,
nSk sft- goR ; It. ANASSAGORA, a-nas-sag o-ra,] a cele-
)rated Greek philosopher, born at Clazomenae, near
Smyrna, 500 B.C. He came to Athens about 460 B.C.,
or, according to some writers, twenty years earlier, an-1
remained there about thirty years. Socrates and EH-

a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;

AN AX AG OR AS

119

AN CHI ETA

ripides are said to have been among his disciples. In
432 B.C. he was prosecuted on a charge of impiety.
Pericles, who had been his pupil, assisted in his defence.
To escape from death he fled from Athens, and died at
Lampsacus, in Asia Minor, 428 B.C. Anaxagoras wrote
a treatise on Nature, of which some fragments have been
preserved. He maintained the eternity of matter, the
elements of which were, he held, in a state of confusion,
till another distinct principle, self-existent, infinitely sub
tile and powerful, which he termed Nous, (or Mind,) re
duced them to order : generation and destruction were
only the union and separation of elemental particles
which could neither be created nor annihilated ; there
was no such thing as chance or accident, these being
nothing more than names for unknown causes.

Anaxagoras may be regarded as the father of modern
science. Of all the ancient philosophers he appears to
have been the first to combine, in the investigation of
Nature and her laws, close reasoning with careful obser
vation and experiment. He demonstrated that air was
a substance, and not mere vacuity according to the popu
lar notion, by showing that when it was confined, as in
bladders, it offered a positive resistance and displaced
other bodies. His observation that there is no such thing
as chance, but that " chance" is merely the name for a
"cause unperceived by the human intellect," (rr/v -TVXTJV,
udrfAov alriav uvdpurrivu Aoyujftu,) evinced rare sagacity,
as well as subtlety of thought ; and in teaching that the
destruction and production of material bodies are nothing
more than the separation and reunion of the elemental
particles, he anticipated one of the most important dis
coveries of modern chemistry.

See RITTEK, " History of Philosophy," 3 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1838;
G. H. LEWES, "Biographical History of Philosophy ;" DE RAMSAY,
"Anaxagoras," the Hague, 1778; J. T. HEMSEX, Anaxagoras Cla-
zomenius sive de Vita ejtis atque Philosophia," 8vo, 1821 ; SCHAU-
BACH, " De Anaxagora;" DIOGENES LAEKTIUS.

Anaxagoras, a Greek statuary, born at /Egina, lived
about 480 B.C. He executed a statue of Jupiter placed
at Elis after the battle of Platasa.

Anaxagore. See ANAXAGORAS.

Au-ax-an dri-des, [Gr. Ava&lt;n&lt;(5pf&lt;5?/c,] a king of
Sparta, reigned from about 560 to 520 B.C. He was the
father of Cleomenes and Leonidas.

Anaxaiidrides, a Greek comic poet, lived in the
fourth century B.C. He wrote many successful dramas.

An-ax-ar -ehus, [Gr. Ava^up^ot;; Fr. ANAXARQUE,
S ntk sSak ,] a Greek philosopher, a native of Abdera, was
intimate with Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied
on his expedition into Asia in 334 B.C. He appears to
have been a man of respectable character. After the
death of Alexander, Anaxarchus is said to have been put
to death by the tyrant Nicocreon, by being pounded in a
large mortar ; he bore the torment with stoical fortitude.

See AKKIAN, "Anabasis."

A-nax i-las, [ Ava^tAaf,] an Athenian comic poet,
contemporary with Plato, lived about 340 B.C.

A-iiax-i-la us [Gr. Ava^i/.anf] or An-ax I-las, a
tyrant or prince of Rhegium, (now Reggio,) in the south
of Italy, in the fifth century B.C.

Anaxilaus, [Gr. Ai- a^laoc,] a Pythagorean philoso
pher, born in Larissa, lived at Rome in the reign of
Augustus, and was banished from Italy on a charge of
magic.

A-iiax-i-man der, [Gr. Ava&fiarfyof; Fr. ANAXIMAN-
DRE, S ntk se mfiNdR/,] an eminent Greek philosopher,
born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, about 610 B.C., is said
to have been a disciple or friend of Thales. The inven
tion of the sun-dial is attributed to him, and Pliny states
that he discovered the obliquity of the ecliptic. He
taught that the earth is a sphere, that the sun is a globe
of fire as large as the earth, and that there is an infinite
number of worlds. The statement of his opinions given
by Plutarch differs from the above. A book which he
wrote is the oldest prose work on philosophy mentioned
among the Greeks. Died about 546 B.C.

See RITTER, " History of Philosophy;" G. H. LEWES, "Bio
graphical History of Philosophy ;" DIOGENES LAEKTIUS.

An-ax-im e-nes, [Gr. AvaSt/jewx ; Fr. ANAXIMENE,
S nik / se / m?in / ,] a Grecian philosopher, born at Miletus,
nourished probably about 500 B.C. Little is known of

his life. His opinions were recorded by Theophrastus.
He maintained that Aer (air) is the original principle of
which all things are formed and into which all things
are resolved, and that this aer is in eternal motion.

See RITTER, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. LEWES, "Bio
graphical History of Philosophy ;" J. H. SCHMIDT, "De Anaximenis
Vita et Physiologia," 1689; DIOGENES LAERTIUS.

Aiiaxim enes OF LAMP SACUS, a historian who lived
about 350 B.C. He wrote a history of Philip of Macedon
and of his son Alexander, which is lost. According to
Suiclas, he was one of the instructors of Alexander the
Great. Pausanias relates that he once saved his native
city by his ready wit. When he came as an intercessor
to Alexander, (who was greatly exasperated against the
citizens of Lampsacus for siding with the Persians,)
the conqueror, anticipating his intention, exclaimed, " I
swear I will not grant your request !" " I implore you,
then," said Anaximenes, "to destroy Lampsacus and
reduce its citizens to slavery." Alexander had the mag
nanimity to keep his word.

Anayay Maldonado, a-nl a e mal-do-na Do^DiEGO,)
born at Salamanca about 1350, was made Archbishop of
Seville in 1417 ; died in 1437.

Ancaeus, an-see us, [Gr. Ay/ccwoc; Fr. ANCEE, Sr/si ,]
a fabulous son of Neptune, and King of Samos, was the
pilot of the ship Argo in the Argonautic expedition. He
planted a vineyard, but was warned by a seer that he
would never drink any wine of his own production. He
made some wine, and was raising a cup of it to his mouth,
when he was told that a wild boar was in his vineyard.
He left the wine untasted, and attacked the boar, by
which he was killed. This event is said to have given
rise to the proverb, " There is many a slip between the
cup and the lip."

An-can ther-us, (CLAUDIUS,) a physician and histor
ical writer, lived at Vienna between 1550 and 1600.

Ancarano, dn-ka-ra no, (GASPARO,) an Italian priest
and poet of Bassano, lived between 1550 and 1600.

Ancarano, d , dan-ka-ra no, (PIETRO GIOVANNI,) an
Italian jurist and poet, born at Reggio, in Lombardy,
lived about 1550.

Ancee. See ANC/EUS.

AncelotjoNss lo , (JACQUES ARSENE FRANCOIS Po-
LYCARPE,) a French dramatic author, born at Havre in
1794. He was in his youth a clerk in the bureau of the
navy department. In 1819 he produced " Louis IX.," a
tragedy in verse, which had a great success, and obtained
from the king a pension of two thousand francs. His
tragedy of "Fiesco" (1824) was also favourably received.
He afterwards composed many dramas, comedies, and
vaudevilles, and succeeded De Bonald in the French
Academy in 1841. Died in 1850.

His wife, originally MARGUERITE VIRGINIE CHARDON,
a painter and authoress, was born at Dijon in 1792.
She wrote several plays, and a volume of tales called
" Emprunts aux Salons de Paris," of considerable merit.

See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" QUERARD, "La France
Litteraire. "

Ancharano, d , dan-ka-ra no, (PiETRO,) an Italian
jurist, born about 1350; died probably about 1420.

Ancheres, Sx shaiR , (DANIEL,) a French poet, born
near Verdun in 1586, was patronized by James I. of Eng
land.

Anchersen, Sng ker-sen, (JOHAN PEDER,) a Danish
antiquary, born at or near Ribe about 1700, was professor
of elocution at Copenhagen. He wrote "Origines Dan-
icae," (1747,) and other works on Danish antiquities.
Died in 1765.

See ERSCH und GRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."

Anchersen, [Lat. ANSGA RIUS or ANSGA RII, | (MAT-
TII/EUS,) a Danish Oriental scholar, born at Colding in
1682, was made Bishop of Ribe in 1731, and died in 1741.

Ancheta, an-cha ta, (MlGtTEL,) a Spanish sculptor of
the sixteenth century, was born at Pamplona. He was
reputed one of the best sculptors of his time.

See BERMUDEZ, " Diccionario Historico."

Anchieta, de, da an-she-a ta, (JosE,) a distinguished
Portuguese Jesuit and missionary, commonly called " the
Apostle of Brazil," was born at Laguna, in Teneriffe, in
1533. He went to Brazil in 1553, and the same year
founded a collccre for the Creoles and natives. After a

e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; x, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.

xplanations, p. 23.)

AKCHIL US

120

ANDERSEN

life of peril and unceasing toil, he died, near Espiritu
Santo, in 1597.

bee VASCONCELLOS, "Vida do Padre Joseph de Anchieta," 1672;
" VK a del Padre J. de Anchieta," by RODRIGUEZ, 1618.

Anchilus, ang Ke-lus, [Fr. pron. oN she liis ,] (N.,)
a Flemish painter, an imitator of Teniers, born at Ant
werp in 1688, and worked in London. Died in 17.33.

An-ehi ses, |Gr. Aj^/ m/f ; Fr. ANCHISE, Sx shez ,] a
Trojan prince, who was said to have been the father of
. Eneas by Venus. On the destruction of Troy he escaped
With his son, and afterwards died in Sicily.

Ancillou, ON se yiN , (CHARLES,) a French writer&gt;
son of David, noticed below, was born at Metz in 1659.
He accompanied his father to Berlin, where, under the
Elector of Brandenburg, (afterwards King of Prussia,)
he enjoyed various honourable offices. He left several
mediocre works. Died in 1715.

Ancillon, (D.WID,) a learned French Protestant di
vine, born at Metz in 1617. He was pastor of a church
at Metz from 1653 to 1685. After the revocation of the
edict of Nantes in the latter year, he went to Berlin,
where he died in 1692. He wrote an "Apology for Lu
ther," and a few other works.

See "Discours sur la Vie de M. Ancillon," by CHARLES ANCIL
LON, 1698.

Ancillon, (JoiiANN PETER FRIEDRICII,) an eminent
German writer and statesman, of French extraction,
born at Berlin in 1766. He was a Protestant minister
in early life. In 1806 he was appointed instructor to
the crown prince, and received the title of councillor of
state, and afterwards held other important offices. He
was minister of foreign affairs from 1831 until his death.
He belonged to the French family of Ancillons, and
wrote in the language of his ancestors with as much
facility as in the German. Among his works are " Me
langes of Literature and Philosophy," in French, (1801,)
and " On the Spirit of Constitutions, and its Influence
upon Legislation," in German, (1825.) His " View of the
Revolutions of the Political System of Europe since
the Fifteenth Century" (in French, 4 vols., 1803) was very
popular. Died in 1837.

See F. A. A. MIGNET, "Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de M.
Ancillon," 1847.

Ancillon, (JOSEPH,) an eminent lawyer, born at Metz
in 1626, was a brother of David, noticed above. He
emigrated to Berlin about 1685, and became a counsellor
of the Elector of Brandenburg. He published a " Treat
ise on the Difference between Personal Property and
Real Estate," (1698.) Died at Berlin in 1719.

Aucillon, (LuowiG FRIEDRICII,) the father of Johann
Peter Friedrich, noticed above, was born in 1744. He
was a man of superior talents, and wrote some works on
religious philosopny and sacred literature, among which
is one on the Cartesian argument for the existence of
God, (Berlin, 1792.) Died in 1814.

Ancina, an-chee na, (GIOVANNI GIOVENALE,) an
Italian ecclesiastic, born at Fossano in 1545, became
Bishop of Saluzzo in 1602 : died in 1604. He wrote
several short Latin poems.

Aiickarstrom. See ANKARSTROM.

Aiicona, d , dan-ko na, (CIRIACO,) an Italian traveller,
writer, and antiquary, born at Ancona about 1390. He
travelled much in the Levant, where he copied inscrip
tions and collected manuscripts. He left, besides other
works, an " Itinerarium." Died about 1450.

Ancora, d , dax ko- ra, (GAKTANO,) an Italian miscel
laneous writer and antiquary, born at Naples in 1757,
was professor of Greek in the university of that city.
Died in 1816. Among his works are a "Memoir on
the Observance of Silence by the Ancients," (1782,) and
"Researches on some Metallic Fossils of Calabria,"
(I79I-)

Ancourt. See DANCOURT.

Ancre, d , do.\kK, [It. D ANCORA, dan ko-ra,] (Con-
cino Coiioini, kon-chee no kon-chee nee,) LK MARE-
CHAL, an Italian courtier, born at Florence, went to
France in 1600 in the retinue of Maria de Medici, queen
of Henry IV. He married Eleonora Galigai, who was
the favourite attendant of the queen and had great in
fluence at court. After the death of Henry, in \6\o, he
became first gentleman of the chamber, Marquis d Ancre,

and marshal of France. He even assumed the power
of prime minister, and made many enemies by his inso
lence and rapacity. He was assassinated in 1617 by De
Luines, De Vitry, and others, who appear to ha&lt; - e per
formed the will of the king in this action. His wife was
tried, convicted of sorcery and lese-majeste, and executed,
in the same year. It is said that when asked by what
magic art she gained an ascendency over the queen, she
replied, "By that power which strong minds exercise
over the weak."

SISMONDI, "Histoire des Francais;" D. SANDELLIUS, "De D. Con-
cini Vita," 1767.

An cus Martins or Marcius, (mar she-us,) the
fourth king of Rome, a grandson of Numa Pompilius,
succeeded TuHus Hostilius about 634 H.C. He is con
sidered the lawgiver or founder of the plebeian order,
which seems to have received in his reign a distinct po
litical existence. He waged war with success against
the Latins, founded Ostia, and built the Pons Sublicius,
(Bridge of Piles.) He died about 610, and was suc
ceeded by Tarquinius Priscus.

See NIEHUHR, " Roman History."

Aiicwitz. See ANKWITZ.

Aiidala, an da-la, (RuARD,) a learned professor of the
Cartesian philosophy, and afterwards of theology, in the
University of Franeker, was born in Friesland in 1665.
He wrote " Descartes in reality the Overturner of Spi-
nosism and the Architect of Experimental Philosophy,"
(1719.) Died in 1727.

Aiidelot. See DANDELOT.

Anderloiii, an-clCR-lo nee, (PiETRO,) an Italian en
graver, born near Brescia in 1784. He became director
of the School of Engraving at Milan in 1831, and en
graved several works of Raphael and Titian. Died in
1849.

Aii der-sen, (HANS CHRISTIAN,) one of the most
gifted writers of the present age, was born at Odense,in
the island of Fiinen, April 2, 1805. His father was a
shoemaker in very indigent circumstances, although he
belonged to a family that had once been rich. He used
to seek relief from the bitterness of his lot by relating to
his children and friends stories of the wealth and splen
dour of his ancestors. Hans was only nine years old
when his father died. His mother wished to apprentice
him to a tailor, but was prevailed on by a fortune-teller
to send him to Copenhagen. Here he tried to obtain
a situation at the theatre ; but he was refused because he
was so meagre and thin. Having a fine voice, he found
employment for a time as a singer. But after six months
he lost his voice, and was again thrown upon the world.
He was, however, so fortunate as to meet with gen
erous and enlightened patrons. Councillor Collin, who
had the sagacity to perceive Andersen s uncommon
powers, obtained permission of the king to send the boy
to a free academy, to be educated at the expense of the
state.

At an early age Andersen had written several short
poems, among which "The Dying Child" was particu
larly admired. Having obtained pecuniary aid from the
King of Denmark, he travelled through Germany, France,
and Italy. After his return he produced a successful
romance, entitled "The Improvisatore," (1834.) The
delineations in this work of the scenery and manners )f
Southern Europe have never been surpassed by any
writer. Another, called "O. Z.," appeared in 1835, con -
taining descriptions of life in the North. "Only a Fid
dler" presents some striking pictures from the story of
his own early life.

The "Poet s Bazaar" (1842) was the result of a visit
to the Levant. His original genius is most conspicuous
in his fairy-tales, of which he has published several vol
umes. They are characterized by quaint humour, rich
imagination, and sometimes by deep pathos. His numer
ous works have been translated into most of the Euro
pean languages.

" For vividness and reality of detail, for breadth and
boldness, too, in the description of scenery, and for skill
in conveying the impression made on a fine mind and
earnest heart by all that is beautiful in nature and true

a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat: met; ndt; good; m&lt; ion;

ANDERSON

121

ANDERSON

in art, he stands without a rival among recent writers of
romance." ("Quarterly Review," March, 1845.)

See HOWITT S "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe,"
London, 1852; also, " Blackwood s Magazine," vol. Ixii. p. 387.

An der-soii, (ADAM,) a Scottish political economist,
born about 1690, was a clerk in the South Sea House for
forty years. He was author of a well-known History of
Commerce, entitled an "Historical and Chronological
Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, etc.," (2 vols.,
1762,) a work of great research. Died in 1765.

See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Anderson, (ALEXANDER,) an eminent Scottish mathe
matician, born at Aberdeen about 1580, became professor
of mathematics at Paris, and died in the early part of the
seventeenth century. He published, besides other works,
" Supplementum Apollonii Redivivi," (16*2.)

See CIIAMHKKS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Anderson, (ALEXANDER,) M.D., a British botanist,
who passed many years in the West Indies, and was super
intendent of the botanic garden of Saint Vincent. He
wrote an "Account of a Bituminous Lake or Plain in the
Island of Trinidad," (1789 ;) a" Description of the Bread-
Fruit Tree," (1798;) and an "Essay on the Cultivation
of the Clove," (1802.) Died about 1813.

Anderson, (ARTHUR,) M.P., a Scottish gentleman
noted for his public spirit and enterprise, was born in
Shetland in 1792. He was the principal founder, and
for many years the director, of the Peninsular and Orien
tal Steam Navigation Company.

Anderson, "(CHRISTOPHER,) a British Baptist min
ister, born in Edinburgh in 1782. He founded the Edin
burgh Bible Society. His chief works arc the " Domestic
Constitution," (1826,) and "Annals of the English
Bible," (2 vols., 1845.) Died in 1852.

See " Life and Letters of Christopher Anderson," by his nephew,
1854; CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Aii der-soii, (Sir EDMOND,) an English judge, noted
for his learning, born at Broughton about 1530. He was
chief justice of the court of common pleas from 1582
until his death, and was one of the commissioners who
tried Mary, Queen of Scots, and Sir Walter Raleigh.
He treated the Puritans with rigour, but his judicial con
duct is said to have been generally moderate and correct.
His " Reports of Cases argued and adjudged in the Com
mon Bench" are esteemed good authority. Died in 1605.

See Foss, " Judges of England ;" LLOYD, "State Worthies."

An der-son, (GEORGE,) a traveller, born in Sleswick.
He traversed Persia, India, China, and other countries,
between 1644 and 1650, and published a narrative of his
travels, in German, (1669.)

Anderson, (GEORGE,) an English writer and mathe
matician, born at Weston in 1760; died in 1796.

Anderson, (GEORGE B.,) an American general, born
at Wilmington, North Carolina, about 183*4, graduated
at West Point in 1852. He commanded a brigade of
Lee s army at the battle of Antictam, and received there
a wound of which he died in October, 1862.

Anderson, (HENRY J.,) professor of mathematics,
etc. in Columbia College, New York, from 1825 to 1843.
He was associated with Lieutenant Lynch in the explo
ration of the Dead Sea, and published "Geology of
Lieutenant Lynch s Expedition," (1848.)

Anderson, (ISAAC,) an American Presbyterian min
ister, born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1780.
He was distinguished as a pioneer preacher or mission
ary in the Western States, and as the founder of a theo
logical seminary at Maryville, Tennessee. Died in 1857.

Anderson, (JAMES;) a Scottish antiquary and histori
cal writer, born at Edinburgh in 1662. He became a
resident of London soon after the union of England and
Scotland. He wrote an " Essay showing that the Crown
of Scotland is Independent," (1/05,) and spent many
years in making a collection of ancient Scottish charters,
etc., which was .published under the title of "Choice
Treasury (or Collection) of the Charters and Coins of
Scotland," (" Selcctus Diplomatum ct Numismatum
Scotise Thesaurus," 1739.) He also published "Collec
tions relating to the History of Mary, Queen of Scotland,"
(4 vols., 1724-28.) Died in 1728.

See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Anderson, ([AMES,) an ingenious writer on agricul
turc and political economy, born near Edinburgh in 1739
was a practical farmer, lie published valuable "Essays
relating to Agriculture and Rural Affairs," (3 vols., 1777, .
and edited a weekly periodical called "The Bee," (1730-^
94,) which is highly commended. In 1797 he removed
to the vicinity of London, where he issued a monthly
periodical called " Recreations in Agriculture, Natural
History, Arts, and Literature," (1799-1802,) in which he
developed a new theory on rent, that was afterwards
adopted by Malthas and others. His scientific informa
tion was extensive and accurate. Besides his other wri
tings, he has contributed several articles to the " Ency
clopaedia Britannica." Died in 1808.

See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Anderson, (JAMES,) was physician-general of the
East India Company s army at Madras, in the last quar
ter of the eighteenth century. He was noted for long and
diligent efforts to introduce the cochineal, mulberry-
tree, silkworm, and other productions, into Hindostan.
He published letters to Sir Joseph Banks and others on
these subjects. Died about 1810.

Anderson, (JAMES,) M.D., an American physician,
born in 1752 ; died in Maryland in 1820.

See THACHER, "Medical Biography."

Anderson, (JAMES STUART MURRAY,) an English
writer, born about 1798, graduated as B.A. at Oxford in
1820. He became rector of Tormarton about 1850, and
published "The History of the Church of England in
the Colonies and Foreign Dependencies of the British
Empire," (3 vols., 1851.)

Anderson, an der-son, QOHANN,) an accomplished
publicist, was born at Hamburg in 1674, and took the
degree of doctor of laws at Leyden in 1697. He was
afterwards employed by the citizens of Hamburg in va
rious negotiations at different European courts. lie
became successively syndic, burgomaster, and senior
burgomaster of his native city. Died in 1 743. He left
an "Account of Greenland, Iceland, and Davis Straits,"
(1746.)

Anderson, (JoiiN,) born in Dumbartonshire, Scot
land, in 1726, was appointed professor of natural phi
losophy in the University of Glasgow in 1760. Died in

1796. He deserves honourable and grateful remem
brance for having founded in Glasgow an institution,
called the Andersonian Institution, for the purpose of
imparting by popular lectures a knowledge of the useful
sciences to mechanics and others not able to go through
a full collegiate course. He published a popular work,
entitled "Institutes of Physics," (1786.)

See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Anderson, (JoiiN,) a Scottish surgeon, born in Mid-
Lothian in 1789, wrote " Memoirs of the House of Ham
ilton," (1825.) Died in 1832.

Anderson, (Rev. JOHN,) a Scottish Presbyterian di
vine, born about 1671. He became minister of Dum
barton in 1/04, and removed to Glasgow in 1720. His
chief work is a " Defence of the Church Government,
Faith, Worship, and Spirit of the Presbyterians," (1714.)
Died about 1722.

See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Anderson, (JOSEPH,) United States Senator, born
near Philadelphia in 1757. He was appointed by Wash
ington, in 1791, judge of the territory south of the Ohio.
Upon its organization into the State of Tennessee, in

1797, he was elected to the United States Senate, of
which he continued an influential member for nineteen
years, being twice chosen president fro tcmforc. From
1815 to 1836 he was First Comptroller of the United
States Treasury. Died in 1837.

Anderson, (LARS.) See ANDRE.*:, (LAURENTIUS.)

Anderson, (RICHARD C.,) an American diplomatist,

born in Kentucky about 1750. He was a representative

in Congress from Kentucky from 1817 to 1821, United

States Minister to the Republic of Colombia in 1823,

and in 1826 Envoy Extraordinary to the Assembly of

American Nations at Panama. Died at Panama in 1826.

Anderson, (RICHARD HENRY.) an American general,

born in South Carolina about 1822. graduated at West

Point in 1842. He became a captain in 1855, resigned

as /; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, n, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (

Explanations, p. 23.)

ANDERSON

122

ANDRAL

his commission in 1861, and was made a brigadier-gene
ral in the confederate army. He commanded a division
at Gettysburg, July, 1863.

Anderson, (ROBERT,) M.D., a Scottish critic and
biographer, born in Lanarkshire in 1750. He resided
in Edinburgh from 1790 until his death, and had an ex
tensive correspondence with literary men. He is best
known as editor of a good edition of " The Works of
the British Poets; with Prefaces Biographical and Crit
ical," (14 vols., 1792-1807.) He also published "The
Life of Ur. Johnson," (1795,) and "The Life of Dr. Smol
lett," (1803.) Died in 1830.

See CHAMBERS, Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Anderson, (ROBERT,) a British poet, born at Carlisle
in 1770 ; died in 1833. Many of his ballads and other
poems are in the Cumberland dialect. His works are
chiefly of a humorous cast.

See "Autobiography of Robert Anderson."

Anderson, (ROBERT,) an American general, born
near Louisville, Kentucky, in 1805, graduated at West
Point in 1825. He served as captain in the Mexican
war, 1846-47, and became a major of artillery in 1857.
In the autumn of 1860 he took command of the forts of
Charleston harbour. He removed his garrison, Decem
ber 26, from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter, which he
refused to surrender on the demand of Governor Pickens.
The insurgents besieged Fort Sumter, and began to bom
bard it on the I2th of April, 1861. The bombardment
was kept up with red-hot shot and with unremitting
fury for many hours. Major Anderson s position having
at length been rendered untenable by want of provisions
and by the combustion of part of the fort, he surrendered
on the I3th of April. He was promoted to be a briga
dier-general in the regular army in May, 1861. In con
sequence of ill health, or some other reason, he took
no further part in the civil war.

See GREELEY S "American Conflict."

Anderson, (WALTER,) a historical and critical writer,
who was minister of Chirnside, Scotland, for about fifty
years. Among his works are "The History of Croesus,
King of Lyclia," (1755,) and "The Philosophy of Ancient
Greece investigated in its Origin and Progress, etc.,"
(1791,) which has some merit, but was superseded by
Enfield s "Abridgment of Brucker." Died in 1800.

See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."

Anderson, (WILLIAM,) a British naturalist who was
surgeon on the Resolution in Cook s second voyage
round the world, 1772-75. He wrote several short
treatises.

Anderson, (WILLIAM,) a British horticulturist, born
about 1766, was for many years curator of the botanic
garden at Chelsea. Died in 1846.

Andersson, an der-son, (CHARLES JOHN,) a trav
eller, born in Sweden in the nineteenth century. Be
tween 1850 and 1855 he passed several years in the ex
ploration of Southern Africa, and made contributions to
the natural history and geography of that region. He
published a narrative of his adventures. While on a
hunting expedition in Southern Africa, he was attacked
and killed by a wounded elephant in 1856.

An der-ton, (HENRY,) an English painter of history
and portraits ; died about 1665.

Anderton, (JAMES,) an English Roman Catholic con
troversial writer, who died in 1643.

Andhrimnir or Andrimner, an-drim ner, in the
Norse mythology, the name of the cook who boils every
day, in the kettle Eldhrimnir, the flesh of the boar
Ssehrimnir, for the table of the gods and heroes.

See THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; MALLET, "North
ern Antiquities," vol. ii., Fable xx.

Andlo (and lo) or Andlau, and low, written also An-
delo, an cleh-lo, (PETER HERMAN OK,) [Lat. PE TRUS
DE AND LO or AND ELO,] a German jurist, of Italian de
scent, lived in the fifteenth century, and wrote in Latin
on the Germanic Empire a work which is remarkable
as the first attempt in Germany to compile a system of
public law.

An-dog i-des, [ AwWrtyf,] an Athenian orator, born
about 467 B.C., was called one of the "Ten Orators."
He was appointed with Glaucon to command a fleet in

432, and acted a prominent part in political affairs.
When the thirty tyrants obtained power in 404 B.C., he
went into exile, from which he soon returned. He died
about 390 B.C. A few of his orations are extant.

Andoque, SiVdok , a French writer of the seven
teenth century, author of a History of Languedoc, (1648.)

Andrada, an-dKa cla, (FRANCISCO,) a Portuguese poet,
flourished about 1600.

Andrada, de, da an-clRa ca, or Andrade, de, da
Sn-dRa Da, (ALFONSO,) a Spanish Jesuit, born at Toledo
in 1590, wrote many works on theology. Died in 1658.

Andrada, de, da an-dRa da, or Andrade, de, da an-
dRa da, (ANTONIO,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born in Alentejo
about 1580. He went as a missionary to India and
Thibet, and published a " New Discovery of the Grand
Cathay, or I^ingdom of Thibet," (1627.) Died at Goa
in 1633.

Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (Dioco LOPEZ,) a
Portuguese preacher, born in Santarcm in 1569; died
in 1635.

Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (FERNAN PEREZ,) a
Spaniard, surnamed (in the Galician dialect) O Bo,
(" the Good,") was a friend of Henri de Trastamara. He
built, about 1388, a noble bridge across the Fume.

Andrada, de, (FERNAO PEREZ,) a Portuguese naval
officer, commande l a ship in the fleet of Albuquerque,
who in 1511 appointed him admiral of a fleet of ten
ships at Malacca. He defeated the Sultan of Java in a
sea-fight in 1513, and commanded the first European
fleet that appeared on the coast of China, (1518.) He
was successful in opening commercial intercourse with
the Chinese.

Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (FRANCISCO RADES,)
a Spanish writer of great merit, born at Toledo, was
author of a " History of the Three Spanish Orders of
Chivalry," (1572.) He lived in the latter half of the six
teenth century, and was chaplain to Philip II.

Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (JACINTO,) an excel
lent Portuguese writer, born at Beja in 1597. He was
abbot of the monastery of Santa Maria das Chas. Died
in 1657. His principal work is the Life of Dom Joao
de Castro, Viceroy of India, (1651,) which is a model of
fine writing.

Aiidrada, de, (PAOLO GONZALEZ,) a Portuguese
lyric poet of the early part of the seventeenth century.
He wrote a volume of Spanish poems, (published at
Lisbon in 1629.)

Andrada e Sylva, (or Silva,) an-dRi da a sel va,
(JosE BONIFACIO,) a distinguished Brazilian, born at
Santos in 1765. He studied at the University of Coim-
bra in Portugal, and returned to Brazil in 1819. He was
a man of great courage, ability, and eloquence, and took
the lead in those measures which in 1822 severed Brazil
from Portugal and created it an independent empire.
He was prime minister of Brazil for a short time in
1822-23, and was appointed guardian of the emperor s
minor children in 1831. He died in 1838, leaving sev
eral scientific treatises.

His brothers, ANTONIO CARLOS and MARTIN FRAN
CISCO DE ANDRADA, born towards the close of the eigh
teenth century, were both distinguished for their talents
and eloquence, and both held high positions under the
Brazilian government. Antonio Carlos died in 1845.

See J. M. PEREIRA DA SYLVA, " Plutarco Brasileiro," 1847; E.

JOAQUIM DA SYLVA MAIA, "Jose Bonifacii

histonco," 1838; FLETCHER and KIDDER, "Brazil and the

Andrade or Andrada, (Diooo de Payva da pl -
va,) a learned Jesuit, born at Coimbra, in Portugal, in
1528. He distinguished himself by his talents and elo
quence at the famous Council of Trent, and afterwards
wrote an elaborate defence of its doctrines against Chem
nitz, a Protestant controversialist. Died about 1575.

Andral, SN dRtK, (GABRIEL,) an eminent French
physician, born in Paris in 1797, was a son of Gnillaume,
noticed below. He published "Clinique Medicale," (4
vols., 1824-27,) and a "Summary of Pathological An
atomy," (3 vols., 1829,) which had a great success. He
wrote also various other medical works. In 1830 he
became professor of pathology, and in 1839 succeeded
Broussais in the chair of pathology and therapeutics, in

I, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon-

ANDRAL

123

ANDREA

Paris. He was admitted into the Institute in 1842. The
wife of Dr. Andral was a daughter of Royer-Collard.
Died in 1853.

See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."

Andral, (GUILLAUME,) a distinguished physician, the
father of the preceding, was born in Lot in 1769. He
became a physician to the army of Italy, and obtained a
high position under Murat at Naoles about 1808.

Andray. See ANDRE.

Andre. See ANDRE/E.

Andre. See ANDREAS.

Andre, oN dui , called SYL VIUS, [in French, Du BOTS,
dii bwa .J a French chronicler of the twelfth century.

Andre, an dRa, (CHRISTIAN KARL,) a German teacher
and writer, born at Hildburghausen in 1763. He taught
near Gotha and at Briinn, and was editor of a popular
magazine called "Hesperus," (1809-31.) Among his
numerous works are "Useful Walks for Every Day in
the Year," (1790,) and a valuable " Geographico-Statis-
tical Description of the Austrian Empire," (1813.) Died
at Stuttgart in 1831.

Andre, (EMIL,) a German writer on the culture and
management of forests, was born at Schnepfenthal in
1790.

Andre, Sx dRa , or Saint- Andre, saN tfiN dRa ,
(FRANCOIS,) a French medical writer, lived about the
close of the seventeenth century.

Andre, sometimes written Andray, ON dRa , (JEAN,)
a French historical painter, born at Paris in 1662 ; died
i" 1753-

Andre, (JoHANN,) a celebrated German composer,
kapellmeister to the Prince of Prussia, was born at Offen
bach in 1741. He composed many operas and songs.
Died in 1799.

Andre, (JOHANN ANTON,) a musical composer, son
of the preceding, was born at Offenbach in 1775. He
composed masses, concertos, symphonies, etc., and pub
lished some works which Mozart left in manuscript.
Died about 1845.

Andre, an dri or an dre, (JoiiN,) an adjutant-general
in the British army of the American Revolution, cele
brated for his complicity in the treason of Arnold, was
born in London in 1 75 1. His parents were from Geneva,
in Switzerland, where he was educated with a view to
becoming a merchant. But, being crossed in love, he
abandoned the counting-house for the camp, and received
his first commission in the British army in 1771. In
1774 he came to America as a lieutenant in the Royal
Fusiliers, and was among the officers captured at Saint
John s early in the war by Montgomery. His varied and
graceful talents and his engaging manners appear to
have obtained for him the appointment of adjutant-gen
eral with the rank of major, without his performing any
distinguished military services. He held, moreover, a
facile and at times satirical pen, and occasionally amused
himself with caricaturing in rhyme the appearance and
exploits of the " rebel " officers. After the evacuation
of Philadelphia by the British he was employed to carry
on a correspondence with a body of loyalists near the
Chesapeake, who were conspiring to restore the royal
government. He first introduced himself to the notice
of Arnold by means of a letter, written August 16, 1779,
to Mrs. Arnold, whose acquaintance he had formed in
Philadelphia.

Major Andre was employed by Sir Henry Clinton to
conduct the secret negotiations with Benedict Arnold for
the surrender of West Point ; and for this purpose he
assumed the name of John Anderson. On the 2 1st of
September, 1780, Major Andre and Arnold had an inter
view at the house of Joshua H. Smith. Arnold furnished
Andre a number of papers relating to West Point, in
cluding maps and plans and memoranda of the weakest
points where an attack might be made with the besf
advantage. He also gave him a passport through the
American lines. After he parted from Arnold, Smith
accompanied him beyond the American outposts, and
Andre proceeded towards New York City by land.
Andre now pursued his journey in confident security
until he had crossed a small stream near Tarrytown,
when three men, armed with muskets, emerged from a
thicket and brought him to a stand. Losing all caution,

he exclaimed, " Gentlemen, I hope you belong to our
party?" " What party ? asked the leader. "The lower
party," said Andre. "We do," was the reply. Andre
then declared himself a British officer on important
business, who must not be detained a moment. To his
consternation, the party now declared themselves Ameri
cans, and told Andre lie was their prisoner. Recovering
himself, he attempted to pass off his former declaration
as a subterfuge, saying he was a Continental officer
procuring information from below, and showed a pass
from General Arnold. The suspicions of his captors,
however, were fully aroused, and, on searching his per
son, the papers furnished him by Arnold were found
between his stockings and the soles of his feet. As a
last resort, Andre offered them his horse and watch,
or any reward they might name, if they would let him
go. But the sturdy republicans were not "to be bribed.
They conducted him ten or twelve miles to North Castle,
and delivered him to Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson. Rec
ognizing the handwriting of Arnold in the papers found,
and perceiving that they were of a dangerous nature,
Colonel Jameson forwarded them by express to Wash
ington at Hartford, and then, with an obtuseness almost
incredible, was about to send Andre to Arnold with a let
ter stating the circumstances of his arrest and the char
acter of the papers found on him. Major Talmadge, ar
riving soon after, immediately suspected Arnold, and, by
earnest entreaty, prevailed on Jameson to detain Andre ;
but the letter was suffered to go on and furnish Arnold
timely warning to make his escape. Andre was tried by
a court-martial and condemned to be hung as a spy. He
admitted freely who he was, and for what purpose he
came within the American lines, but declined disclosing
anything implicating any other person. Sir Henry Clin
ton made great efforts to secure his release. It was
intimated to him that Andre would be given up on the
surrender of Arnold ; but this was not to be thought of.
Andre requested that his sentence might be commuted
to being shot; but the magnitude of the plot in which he
was implicated forbade any indulgence being shown him.
He was executed at Tarrytown on the morning of Oc
tober 2, 1780, conducting himself with great fortitude to
the last. The day before his execution he sketched,
with pen and ink, a miniature likeness of himself, which
is now in the Trumbull Gallery of Yale College. In
1821 his remains were transferred to England and in
terred in Westminster Abbey. The names of his captors
were John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van
Wart. They were liberally rewarded by Congre.ss, and
in 1853 a monument was erected to their memory on
the site of Andre s arrest. Joshua H. Smith was tried
for treason, but acquitted on the plea of his ignorance
of Arnold s traitorous designs.

See Life of Benedict Arnold, in SPARKS S "American Biography;"
WIXTHROP SARGENT, "Life and Career of Major John Andre 1 ," 1861 ;
"Atlantic Monthly" for December, 1860.

Andre, oN clRa , L A)u;E, a French writer, born at
Marseilles, lived between 1750 and 1800. lie published
an edition of the works of D Aguesseau, (13 vols.,
1759-90.)

Andre, (RUDOLPH,) a German writer on rural econ
omy, born at Gotha in 1792, was a brother of Emil,
above noticed, and was a practical cultivator. It is
stated that he first described the art of improving races
of animals. Died in 1825.

Andre, (Marshal SAINT.) See SAINT-ANDRE.

Andre, (VALERE.) See ANDREAS, (VALERIUS.)

Andre, (YVES MARIE,) a French Jesuit writer, and
professor of mathematics at Caen, born in 1675 in Brit
tany ; died in 1764. He is known as the author of an " Es
say on the Beautiful," ( 1 741 ,) a work of considerable merit.

Andrea, an-dRa a, (AI.ESSANDRO,) an Italian histori
cal writer, born at Barletta in 1519.

Andrea, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian scholar, born at
Vigevano in 1417, became Bishop of Aleria in Corsica.
He is chiefly remembered as the editor of several clas
sical works published at Rome, among which are "Cae
sar s Works," (1469 ;) "The Decades of Livy," (1470;)
"The Works of Virgil," (about 1470;) "Pliny s Natural
History," (1470,) and "Cicero s Orations," (1471.) Died
in 1475.

e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^~See Explanations, p. 23.)

ANDREA

124

ANDREI

Andrea, written also Andreas, (ONUFRIO,) a Nea
politan poet, wrote, besides other works, a heroic poem,
called " Italia Liberata," (1646.) He was ranked among
the best Italian poets of his time by Crescimbeni. Died
about 1650.

Andrea PISANO, (pe-sa no,) a celebrated Italian
sculptor and architect, born at Pisa about 1270, was a
pupil of Nicola and Giovanni Pisani. He was one of
the first who abandoned the Gothic style for the antique
nodels of Greece. He was invited to Florence to exe
cute the sculptures of the facade of Santa Maria del
Fiore. At the death of Arnolfo di Lapo, Andrea was
appointed superintendent of the public works of Flor
ence. He designed the Castello di Scarperia and the
church of San Giovanni at Pistoja. His master-piece
of sculpture is the bronze rilievi of the gates of the
baptistery of San Giovanni at Florence, (1339.) Died
at Florence in 1345.

His son NINO was an able sculptor, and finished some
of his father s works.

See CICOGNARA, " Storia della Scultura."
Andrea, (ZoAN or GIOVANNI,) a skilful Italian en
graver, who lived in the early part of the sixteenth
century. He copied and imitated the prints of Man-
tegna. His works are rare, and command high prices.
See OTTLEY, "Early History of Engraving."
Andrea, d , dan-dRa a, (FRANCESCO,) an eminent
jurist of Naples, born near Amain in 1625 ; died in
1698.

Andrea del Castagno. See CASTAGNO.
Andrea del Sarto or Vamiucchi. See SARTO.
Andrea di Luigi. See LUIGI.

Andreae, an-dRa a, (ABRAHAM,) a Swedish prelate,
born in Angermannland. He was elected Archbishop
of Upsal in 1593, before which date he had opposed the
attempt of King John to restore the Roman Catholic
religion in Sweden. He died in prison in 1607.

Andreae or Andrea, an-dRa a, (or Andreas, an-
dka as,) (JACOB or JAMES,) an eminent German Protest
ant theologian, born at Waiblingen, in Wiirtemberg, in
1528. He was ordained deacon at Stuttgart in 1546,
after which he became professor at Tubingen. He
performed many long journeys in Germany to organ
ize the Lutheran worship, and acquired great influ
ence by his learning, energy, and eloquence. He was
president of a board of five who, in 1580, produced the
" Formula Concordias," a summary and symbol of faith
then adopted, and still recognized, by the Lutheran
Church. He wrote many polemical works against the
Calvinists and Papists. Died in 1590.

See MELCHIOR ADAM, " Vita; Germanorum Theologorum ;" J. V.
AXDRE/E, " Fama Andreana reflorescens," etc., 1630; LEBKET,
" Programmata III. de J. Andrea; Vita," 1799.

Andreae, an dre-e or an-dRa a, [Fr. ANDRE, ON T/ -
dRa ,] (JOHANNES or GIOVANNI,) an eminent professor
of canon law, was born near Florence about 1275. He
was professor at Bologna for many years. Died in 1348.
He was reputed the most celebrated canonist of the
fourteenth century. His "Commentaries on the Decre
tals" were highly esteemed.

See FANTUZZI, " Scrittori Bolognesi ;" MAZZUCHELLI, " Scrittori
d ltalia."

Andreae, (JOHANN GEORG REINHARDT,) a German
apothecary, born at Hanover in 1724. He wrote treat
ises on chemistry, botany, etc., which appeared in the
" Hanover Magazine," and " Letters from Switzerland,"
(2d edition, 1776.) Died in 1793.

Andreee or Andrea, [Fr. ANDRE, oN dRa ,] (JO
HANN VALENTIN,) a German satirical writer of great
merit, born at Herrenberg, in Wiirtemberg, in August,
1586, was a grandson of Jacob Andreoe, (1528-90.) He
became deacon at Vaihingen in 1614, town-pastor at
Calw in 1620, court preacher at Stuttgart in 1639, and
ecclesiastic counsellor to the Duke of~Brunswick-Wol-
fenbuttel in 1642. The institution of the order of Rosi-
crucians is ascribed to him by some writers ; but the
disputes on this question have not dispelled its obscurity.
His principal work is a " Hundred Satirical Dialogues/
(" Menippus, sive Dialogorum Satiricorum Ccnturia,"
1617.) He showed a liberal philosophical spirit in his
Latin work entitled " The Images of the Virtues and

Vices of Human Life," (1619.) He also published
poems in German, which are praised by Herder. Died
in 1654. " Andreas," says Hallam, "was a man above
his age, and a singular contrast to the narrow and.pe-
dantic herd of German scholars and theologians."

See SEYBOI.D, "Selbstbiographien beriihmter Manner," 1799; W.
HOSSBACH, _[. V. Andrea; ur.d seiner Zeitalter dargestellt," 1819;
FLOGEL, " Geschichte der Komischen Literatur."

Aiidreee, (LAURENTIUS,) [Sw. LARS AN DERSON,]
one of the principal agents in the introduction of the
Reformation into Sweden. He was converted to the
Protestant faith in 1520, and appears to have become
soon after the principal adviser of Gustavus Vasa, who
appointed him chancellor. In 1526 he published a
translation of the New Testament into Swedish. He
afterwards incurred the suspicion and displeasure of his
sovereign, and died in obscurity in 1552.

See GEZELIUS, "Biographiskt-Lexicon."

Andreae, (TOBIAS,) a German Cartesian philosopher,
born at Braunfels in 1604, was professor of Greek at
Groningen. Died in 1676.

Andreae, (ToniA.s,) a German physician and profes
sor of philosophy, was born at Bremen in 1633; died
at Franeker in 1685.

Andreani, an-dRa-a nee, (ANDREA,) a noted Italian
engraver, surnamed MANTUANO, (i.e. the "Mantuan,")
born at Mantua about 1540; died in 1623. He carried
to great perfection the art of engraving on wood in
chiaroscuro. His master-piece is "The Triumph of
Caesar."

An dre-as, [Gr. AwJpeaf,] the name of several an
cient physicians, none of whom is of sufficient note to
deserve a place here.

Au dreas, an archbishop of Cresarea in Cappadocia,
supposed to have lived about the close of the fifth cen
tury. He wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse.

An dreas surnamed CRETEN SIS, ("of Crete,") a
native of Damascus, -who became Archbishop of Crete
near the end of the seventh century.

Andreas, (Italian.) See ANDREA.

Andreas, an-dRa as, Archbishop of Lund, in Sweden,
wrote " Hexaemeron," a Latin poem on the Creation,
and was author or compiler of the "Laws of Zealand."
Died in 1228.

An-dre as or An/ drew, (OF NAPLES,) called also
Andreasso, an-dua-as so, born about 1324, was the
second son of Carobert, King of Hungary. His marriage
with Joanna, heiress of the throne of Naples, was cele
brated in 1331, and she became queen regnant in

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